LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



-fc- 



mpuf. 



Shelf ..VJLI.1 7 
fU- 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



ERI 



,^J-t 



...J-t 



THE HOG; 

THE TEEA.TMENT OF THE 

BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, FEEDING, AND MEDICAL 
TREATMENT OF SWINE; 

WITH DIRECTIONS FOB 

SALTINa POEK AND CURING BACON AND HAMS. 

/ 

j/ BY 

WILLIAM YOUATT, V. S., 

ATJTHOR OF " THE HORSE," " CATTLE," " SHEEP," " TttK DOG," ETO^ 
^ ^ AND 

W. C. L. MARTIN, 

MEMBEE OF THE KOYAL ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 

EDITED BY A. STEVENS. 

NEW EDITION, 
WITH INTRODUCTION BY COL. M. C. WELD 

ILLUSTRATED* 







NEW YORK: 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 

751 BROADWAY. 

1884. 







S\ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by the 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANlf, 

In the OfSce of the Librarian of CougresB, at WasbingtoQ. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The admirable work of Mr. William Youatt was taken as 
the basis of the volume here presented, and that of Mt. W. 0. 
L. Martin, one of the officers of the London Zoological So- 
ciety, has furnished to the editor much valuable matter. Its 
Publishers entrusted the editorial work to that classical writer 
and Avell known breeder, the late Ambrose Stevens, wl o, 
wisely preserving entn-e the work of Youatt, so eminent for 
his historical descriptions and veterinary writings, combined 
with it such portions of Mr. Martin's work as would not be 
repetitions, thus forming a volume of no ordinary value. 

In his preface to his original work, Mr. Youatt says: ^'In 
undertaking this vv'ork, the author was influenced by an anx- 
ious desire to extend the views of Medical Science generally, 
and of his own profession in particular, and by a wish to 
draw the attention of agriculturists and veterinary surgeons to 
a too much neglected and undervalued class of animals, and 
by the hope of materially increasing the amount of knowledge 
already possessed. 

" It has been his task to collect all the various brief and cur- 
sory notices which have been accorded to swine by ancient as 
well as modern agricultural and medical writers; to select 
those which were valuable and worthy of record; and then, 
by weaving them into the groundwork of his own ideas and 
experience, to bring the before scattered rays into one focus, 
£0 that the eye of science may be attracted towards this hith- 
(3) 



INTUODUCTION". 



erto neglected branch, and, from contemplating, may be led to 
study it; and practical men may be induced to aid, by tbeir 
experience, in elucidating a subject which is as yet so little 
understood. In short, he has endeavored to act as a pioneer, 
to lead the way to, and break up, a new and fertile spot; one 
that will amply reward the labors of those whom he hopes to in- 
duce by his example to bestow some little of their care upon it." 
His success was so much beyond expectations, that the ap- 
pearance of this work really marks an era in swine breeding, 
and gives it a certain historical value of its own, aside from 
the care which Mr. Youatt took in presenting a history of each 
of the prominent breeds, and of those sources from which im- 
provement had come or was to be expected. The present 
Publishers therefore feel that no apology is necessary for pre- 
senting: a new edition of this standard work. 



CONTENTS. 



I. 

PAoa 

looLOGioAL definition of the Pig— The orde.r Pachydermata— The Peccary— The Babi- 
roussa— The Phaco 3hoere»— The Capibara — Various animals have been called by Ihe 
name of Hog, .......... li 

II. 

Derivation of the term Hog— The Hog was generally esteemed by the Romans— Wor- 
shipped by some of the ancients — Swine's flesh prohibited by the law of Moses By 

that of Mohammed — Despised by the Egyptians, . . , . , ,21 

III. 

The early history of Swine— Legendary and authentic records respecting the keeping of 
them in England — Ancient Welsh laws relative to Swine — The forests of England- 
Swineherds— Their mode of managing their herds— Calabrian Swineherds— Horn used 

to assemble the grunting troop— The Schweim-Generai — Herds of Swine kept in France 

Value of Pigs— Some vindication of them— Anecdotes proving their teachaLility— >Saga' 
city of a Pig — Some demonstrations of memory in one— Attachment to individuals — 
Swine not innately filthy animals — Are possessed of more docility than they usually 
have credit ibr — Their exquisite sense of smell— Pigs said to foretell rain and wind, . 20 

IV. 

The Wild Eoar — Description of him— Characteristics — The female and her young — Hunting 
the Wild Boar — Homer's description of a Boar-hunt — Roman festivals and games — The 
Wild Boar in Blngland and Scotland — In France — In Germany — Mode of hunting the 
Boar in Germany — Wild Boar park of the Emperor of Austria — Present wild breed in 
Germany — In Hungary— In the Styrian Alps— In Russia — In Swedec— In the East — 
Habits of the Wild Hog in India — Wild Hog hunting in India — The wild breed in America 
— Fearful conflict with a wild herd in Columbia — The Wild Boar the parent stock of all 
domesticated breeds — Resemblances between — Alterations produced by domestication 
—Resumption of old habits on again becoming free from control of man, . , 46 

V. 

Bwine in America— In large towns— Original breed — Improved breed— Swine in Canada— 
In Ohio — In Mexico— Hebrides— In Coiumbia— In the South-Sea Islands- Swine in A8U 
—In China and Japan — Ceylon — Hindostan— Turkey and Arabia — Swine in Africa — 
Guinea— New Holland — Calf raria— Swine in Eukope — Malta — Italy^^ermany — ^Hun- 



-uMi.kv.^ i.^.T »^x'(.u<ivf ^uutt-^4iu ^^'vviii*^ jii ijj 1. x^v/i i:. xTicidci xiui j^-njci iiJciijy— — null* 

gary — Russia — Sweden — France — Swine indigenous to the Chaxkel Islands— In Jersey 

^^uernsey — Serk — Aldcrney.— Isle of Man — Hebrides — Orkneys, . . . 



VI. 



fit 



FOOTLAND, aboriginal breed of Swine in- Little known until lately — Present races— Eng- 
land, original breed — Swine in Yorkshire— Lincolnshire — Leicestershire — Bedfordshire 
— Essex — Suffolk— Norfolk— Shropshire — Cheshire — Gloucestershire — Herefordshire — 
Wilwliiie— Berkshire— Hampshire— Sussex— The Chinese breed— Swine in Ireland . 7» 



It contents. 

VII. 

Skeleton of the Hog — Skull and Snojt— Teeth — Brain— Apoplexy— Inflammation of the 
Brain — I'hrenitis— The Spinal Cord — Epilepsy — Palsy and Paralysis — Tetanus — Rabies — 
Nasal Catarrh— The Larynx— The Pliarynx — The Os Hyoides— Strangles and Quinsy 
— The Chest — Diseased Valves of the Heart — The Bronchial Tubes— Inflammation of 
the Lungs or Rising of the Lights — ^Pleuro-Pneumonia — Epidemics, . . . 101 

vni. 

Anatomy of the Stomach— Gullet — Intestines— Duodenum— Jejunum — Ileum—^CBCum — 
Colon : Diseases to which these parts are liable — Enteritis — Colic— Diarrhcea — Garget 
of the Maw — Anatomy of the Liver and Spleen : Splenitis — Rupture of the Spleen— Ab- 
sorption of the Spleen— Peritoneum— Worms— The bladder and its diseases — Protrusion 
of iho Rectum, ...... . . . • 127 

IX. 

The Skin and its Diseases — Gangrenous Erysipelas— Lice— Leprosy— Mange — Measles — 
Desquamation of the Skin, ....... . 136 

X. 

Operation*— Bleeding— Castration— Catching and Holding— Drenching— Ringing, . 114 

XI. 

Breeding ; Principles of— Choice of the Boar and Sow — Best Breeds — Age at which the 
Sow may be used for Breeding — Proper age for the boar to commence at — Period of 
Gestation — Fruitfulness of Sows — Trealment of them during Pregnancy — Alioriion — 
Parturition— Caesarian Operation — lionsirosiiies — Treatment of Sows while Nursing — 
Treatment of Young while Sucking — Weaning and alter-trealment — Proiilic Powers of 
Swine, ... ........ 149 

XII. 

On Feeding Swine — ^Fat Pigs — Cattle Shows— Whey, Milk, and Dairy Refuse— Befuse and 
Grains of Breweries and Distilk-ries— Residue ot btarch Manufactories -Vegetables and 
Boots — Fruits — Grain — Soiling and Pasturing Swine — Animal Substances as Food lor 
them — General directions tor breeding and latteniiig, .... 173 

XIII. 

On the Proper Construction of Piggeries — Ventilation — Description of Mr. Henderson's Cties 
— Cooking Apparatus — Curious Contrivance lor Feeding Pig*— Description oi the Piggery 
at Prince Albert's Home Farm — Description of a Piggery at Lascoed— Advantages of 
Cleanliness— Pig-keeping in Mexico, . • . • . 197 

XIV. 

Pigs, Profit of. to the Butcher—Sucking pigs— Pork-Butchers — Pig-killing at Rome — Pick- 
ling Pork — Bacon *, Mode of curing in Haii.pshire — Buckinghamshire— Wiltshire — York- 
shire— Wesiplialia — America — Brine poisonous to Pigs — Quantity of Bacon, Ham, and 
Salted I'ork Imported during the last Three Years — Importation ol Swine — Pig's Dung as 
Manure, . . . . . * . . . . .200 

XV. 

lledic'ses used in combaCng the Maladies ^f Swine, . , • • • SS 



THE HOG. 



CHAPTER I. 

Eoo((^ical definition of the Pig— The order Pachydermata— The Peccary— The Babiioussa — ^Th« 
Pnaco-choeres— The Capibara — Various animals have been called ly the name of Hog. 

The Hog, (Suidae Sua of the ancients and Linnceus,) according 
to Cuvier, belongs to " the class Mammalia, order Pachydermata, 
genus Suidae or Sus, having on each foot two large principal toes 
shod with stout hoofs, and two lateral toes much shorter and scarcely 
touching the earth ; the incisors variable in number, the lower in- 
cisors all levelled forwards ; the canines projected from the mouth 
and recurved upwards ; the muzzle terminated by a truncated snout 
fitted for turning up the ground ; the stomach but little divided ; the 
body square and thick, and more or less covered with bristles and 
hairs ; the neck strong and muscular ; the legs short and stout." 
(Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, vol. iii.) 

The suidce are robust and massive in their form, low in the limbs, 
flat-sided, with immense muscular development in the neck and 
fore-quarters. The head is wedge-shaped, with an elongated snout, 
terminating in a round or oval disc of cartilage, called in common 
language the button ; this disc is pierced by the nostrils, and pos- 
sesses great power of mobility, being supplied by several strong 
muscles ; it is, moreover, strengthened and supported by a small 
extra bone, as in the instance of the mole also, and is used with great 
facility as an instrument for ploughing up the ground in quest of 
roots for food. The lower jaw is deep and strong, and the syraphy 
sis of the chin is completely ossified, and not, as in ruminants, united 
by suture. The mouth is wide, opening to a degree almost unpa- 
rallelled among terrestrial mammalia. The jaws are armed with 
tusics, which grow to a large size, pass from between the lips, 
and are weapons of tremendous effect ; the tusks of the lower jaw 
advance before those of the upper, which turn obliquely upwards 
and outwards. In the peccaries, the tusks are but little developed ; 



12 THE HOG. 

in the male babiroussa those of the upper jaw pierce through the skin 
of the snout, and are greatly elongated. The eyes are small, but quick 
and shrewd in expression ; the ears are moderate, erect, and pointed. 
The tongue is elongated and smooth. The tail is short, slender, and 
apparently of little utility. The senses of smell, sight, and taste are 
in high perfection, more especially that of smell, and the olflictory 
nerves are large. The sense of hearing is acute. In their diet the 
suidce are omnivorous, vegetable and animal substances being equally 
acceptable ; still it is on vegetable aliment that they chiefly feed. The 
skin is coarse, covered with bristles, and destitute, or nearly so, of 
the subcutaneous muscular expansion common to most other animals, 
termed the pannicul as carnosus, and so highly developed in the hedge- 
hog. On looking at the skull we find its base or occipital portion 
forming a right angle with the obliquely rising upper surface, and a 
bold transverse ridge is formed by the union of the occipital to the 
parietal bones, which latter advance above the frontal bones, and 
form the most elevated portion of the skull. The nasal bones are 
prolonged to the end of the snout, and the symphysis of the lower 
jaw is consolidated, hi proportion to the elevation of the occipital 
bone are the length and strength of the spinous processes of the 
dorsal vetebrse. Those of the anterior dorsal vertebrae in particu- 
lar are remarkable for their development, and indicate the volume 
of the muscles for supporting and moving the head. These are the 
agents by which the dreadful tusks are brought into play. Rushing 
on his antagonist, the boar strikes obliquely upwards, right and left, 
with irresistible violence, in a direction harmonizing with that of the 
tusks, and in the mode best suited for the exertion of the animal's 
strength. The neck is short, and with this shortness is necessarily 
connected that of the limbs, and especially of the interior pair, 
otherwise the animal would not without difficulty reach the ground 
with its snout. Their strength must be in proportion to the weight 
to be sustained, and the weight depends upon the size of the head 
and the muscular development of the neck and shoulders. 

All this species feed on plants, and especially on roots, which their 
snout or trunk enables them to grub out of the earth ; they will 
devour animal substances, but rarely hunt or destroy animals for 
the purpose of devouring them. They are thick skinned ; said 
to be obtuse in most of their faculties, excepting in the olfactory 
and oral senses ; voracious, bold in defending themselves ; and de- 
light in humid and shady places. 

To this order belong the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopo 
tamus, &;c., the general characteristics of all of which are very 
similar. 

From among the cloven-footed or many-toed animals of the 
pachydermatous order of mammalia, man has subjugated and r& 
claimed only two — '"'Iz., the hog and the elephant. 



THE PECCARY. 13 

The domestic hog .s the descendant of a race long since subjugated ; 
yet while a race of domesticated swine has been and is kept under 
surveillance, the wild type whence this race sprung has maintained 
itself in its native freedom, the fierce denizen of the forest, and one 
jf the renowned beasts of " venerie." Its wild source still exists, and 
-s universally i-ecognized ; it roams through the vast wooded tracts 
v)f Europe and Asia. The wild stock of the hog is most extensively 
spread throughout Europe and x\sia, and has been known, described, 
and celebrated from the earliest ages, alike by sacred and classical 
writers; it is the sus sc/ofa of Linnaeus, the sus aper of Brisson. 

Under the generic term Suidae or Sus many zoologists have in. 
eluded, besides the true hog as it exists in a wild or tame state in 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, the peccary, the babiroussa, the phaco 
choere, and the capibara; we will, therefore, slightly glance at each 
of these varieties before proceeding to the actual subject of the pre- 
sent work. 

The Peccary. — This appears to be the nearest approach to swine 
among the animals indigenous to the New World ; and the Collared 
Peccary {Dicidvles torquatuf<) and the White-lipped Peccary [Dico- 
tyles libiatus) actually do at first sight appetir to bear a very close 
resemblance to the common hog, but a more careful examination 
soon enables us to detect material differences. The head is thicker 
and shorter, the body not so bulky, the legs shorter, the hoofs longcir. 
the ears shorter, and the tail is supplied by a slight, and, at a cursor* 
glance, almost imperceptible protuberance. But the great differ 
ence arises from a small gland on the back, which, although partially 
concealed by the hair, is nevertheless evident, and hence it is that 
the term Dicotyles^ which signifies a double navel, has been given to 
this species. This gland secretes a fluid which is emitted in great 
abundance whenever the animal is irritated, and gives out a very 
strong odor, pronounced as fetid and disagreeable by some authors, 
and by others compared with musk. 

Cuvier remarks that the external toe on the hind feet is wanting 
in the peccary. The body is of a grayish hue, and thickly covered 
with strong coarse bristles, stiff enough to penetrate a tolerably firm 
substance, and shaded black and white. These are loncfest on the 
back, where some will be found measuringr four or five inches ; thov 
become gradually shorter and shorter on the sides, and disappear 
altogether on the belly, which is nearly bare. Or the head is a 
large tuft of black bristles. The eyes and snout are small, the ears 
erecA. 

This animal is found in vast numbers in Paraguay and Guiana, 
and has been termed by some writers the Mexican hog. It has 
nearly the same habits and tastes as the common hog ; feeds on 
seeds and roots ; digs with its snout ; expresses its emotions by 
grunts; is fierce in defence of its young; very prolific; and tha 



14: THE noQ. 

flesh is similar tc crdinary pork, but harder, less sweet and juicy 
and not so fat. 

The peccary may be tamed if taken when young, and will attach 
itself to those who are kind to it, and to dogs and other animals; is 
fond of being caressed and scratched, and will answer to its keeper's 
voice. 

The European hog, when transplanted to the wilds of America, 
will herd with the peccaries, but is never known to breed with them* 
the two races, although resembling each other in certain points, are 
and remain distinct. The hog is the larger, stronger, and more use- 
ful animal, and will thrive in almost any part of the world : the 
peccary is smaller, weaker, and cannot be made to live in a foreign 
climate without very great care and attention. 

The Babiroussa, {sus baby-ronssa,) or Hog-deer, or, as it has been 
termed by some foreign authors, the Indian hos^, is chiefly found in 
the Moluccas, Sumatra, Java, and other islands of the Indian Archi- 
pclacro. 

This animal stands higher than the common hog; its legs are 
long and slender; its skin thin and scantily furnished with short 
woolly hair of a reddish brown on the back, and lighter and more 
inclined to fawn-color on the belly. It is chieiiy remarkable for 
the strange position of its upper tusks, which come through the skin 
of the muzzle and curve backwards almost like horns, until they 
nearly or quite touch the skin again ; they are sometimes as much 
as nine inches in length and five in circumference. Pliny (b. 8, chap. 
Hi.) evidently alludes to this animal when he says that wild boars 
are tbund in India which have two horns on the face, similar to those 
of a heifer, and tusks like the comxmon wild boars. 

There are all the fiimily characteristics of the hog in this animal; 
the heavy awkward gait, thick neck, small eyes, head terminated by 
a snout, and grunting voice; it feeds, too, on roots, plants, and 
leaves, and some say shell-fish ; but some authors asseit that it 
does not grub roots out of the ground like most of the swiiu.sh varie- 
ties. Sparrman informs us that ihe natives would lather attack a 
lion than this animal, for it comes rushinsj on a man swift as an 
arrow, and, throwing him down, snaps his legs in two and rips his 
belly up in a moment. (Voyage, vol ii.) 

The flesh of the babiroussa is very fmo eating, and the Malays melt 
down the fat to use instead of butter and oil. 

Cuvier has given an account of a pair that were at the Menagerie 
at Paris, the female of which was much younger and m.ore active 
than the male; he was old and fat, and only ate, drank- and slept. 
When the male retired to rest, the female would cover him com- 
pletely over with straw or litter, and creep in after him, so that 
h()ih were concealed from sight. The specimen at the ZoGl)gica] 
Gardens in the Regent's Park used to cover himself up vith strav? 
In the s^ine wav. 



THE HOG TRIBE. 16 

The Phaco-choeres. — There are two recognized species of this 
rjiriery of the hog family, the one found in Guinea and the interior 
of the Cape, and spoken of by various writers as the Warl^-hog, and 
the other tirst seen in Kordofan and afterwards in several parts of 
Abyssinia, and referred to by vElian as the hog with four horns. 
Of the habits of these creatures little is known, save that they are 
Inhabitants of forests, and their food is vegetable. 

They are remarkable for the two warts or fleshy excrescences 
which disfigure the face on either side ; the eyes are small ; a 
bristly mane of a pale brown color rises between the ears and ex- 
tends itself along the back, many of the hairs of which are from 
eight to ten inches in length ; the body is bare ; the tail thin and 
terminated by a tuft of hair ; and the tusks very large and powerful. 

The Capibara — is an animal which is often classed by modern zoo- 
logists among the Cavies ; it Jilso resembles a two-} ear old hog in shape 
and color, but its head is longer, its eyes larger, and its nose cleft 
like the lip of a rabliit, instead of being round. It has thick, coarse 
whiskers, a narrow mouth, and no tusks. The front hoofs are divid- 
ed into four parts, and the back ones into three, and these divisions 
or toes are connected together by skin, and thus in a manner web- 
bed, and adapted for swimTiiing; indeed so much does it delight in 
the water that by some it has been called the water-hog. It lives 
upon fruit, corn, and sugar-canes, and eats all the fish it can catch. 
These animals associate in herds and seldom go out of their lair 
excepting in the night time, or quit the borders of some lake or 
river, for their short legs and strangely-formed feet prevent them 
from running with any degree of speed, so their only safety is ir th'^ 
water, wherein they plunge on the least alarm. 

If taken young this animal may easily be tamed, and is capable 
of great attachment. We are infoi-med that its flesh is tender, juicy, 
and fat, but has a fishy flavor ; the head is, however, said to be 
excellent. 

Cuvier refuses to admit this last-mentioned animal among the 
Pachvdermata, but places it in the order Rodentia, genus Cavia. 

The animal, too, so well known to us by the name of Guinea-pig, 
or among the French as the Cochon d'Inde, he also classes among 
the Rodentia. (Cuvier's Animal Kingdom.) 

The name Hog has been given by different nations to various 
animals which hive no affinity whatever with the actual family Siis : 
thus the Spaniards call the tatous, hogs in armor; the Hollanders 
term the porcupine^ the iron hog; the porpoise has fi-equently be*'n 
designated the seahog ; and Aristotle speaks of a hog-ape, which 
has been since supposed to refer to one of the baboon tribe; while 
amonfij our common animals we have the hedge-hog. This has led to 
much confusion and misapprehension ; but the genus Suidne or Sus 
is now very generally allowed to apply only to the actual swine as 



16 THE HOG. 

they exist in <a wild oi doiiiesticated state throughout the greater 
part of the known world. 

Martin says : — That the wild hog is the source of our ordinary 
domestic race cannot be disputed ; and as little can we doubt its 
extreme antiquity. The hog has survived changes which have swept 
multitudes of pachydermatous animals from the surface of our earth. 
It still maintains an independent existence in Europe, and presents the 
same characters, both physical and moral, which the earliest w^riters, 
whether sacred or profane, have faithfully delineated. The domestic 
stock has indeed been more or les-s modified by long culture, but 
the wild species remains unaltered, insomuch that the fossil relics of 
its primitive ancestors may be identified by comparison with the 
bones of their descendants. 

The fossil relics of the genus sus have been found in the miocene 
and also in the pliocene deposits of the tertiary system of Lyell 
Kaup, for example, has described fossil bones of the genus .nis from 
the miocene Eppelsheim sand, in which they were associated with 
those of the mastodon and dinotherium ; and MM. Croizet and 
Jobert, in their account of the fossils of Auvergne, describe ana 
figure the fossil bones of a species of hog, wdiieh, as was satisfacto- 
rily proved, must have lived coexistent with and on the same locality 
as extinct elephants and mastodons. According to these geologists, 
the facial part of the fossil hog discovered by them is relatively 
shorter than in the existing species ; hence, under the supposition 
that their fossil animal might have been distinct, they conferred upon 
it the title of aper {sus) Avcrnensis. How far this distinctiveness 
is real, yet remains to be seen ; at all events. Professor Owen, in 
his valuable work on British fossil mammalia, places the sus Aver- 
ncnsis^ with a query, as one of the synonyms of the cochon fossile of 
Cuvier, sus scrofa fossilis o^ Von Meyer [Paloeolor/ica, p. 80,) sus 
prisciis of Goldfuss (Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Ccr.^ t. xi., pt. 2, p. 482,) 
the fossil hog of Dr. Buckland, and the sus scrofa, Owen, in Report 
of British Association^ 1843, p. 228. 

With reference to the fossil remains of the hog, Professor Owen 
thus writes : — " When Cuvier communicated his memoir on the fossil 
bones of the hog to the French Academy, in 1809, he had met with 
no specimens from formations less recent than the mosses, or turba- 
ries and peat-bogs, and knew not that they had been found in the 
drift associated with the bones of elephants. He repeats this obser- 
vation in the edition of the Ossemens Fossiles. in 1822 ; but in the 
additions to the last volume, pualished in 1825, Cuvier cites the dis- 
covery by M. Bourdct de la Nievre of a fossil jaw of a sus^ on the 
east bank of the lake of Neufchatel, and a fragment of the uppei 
jaw fi'om the cavern at Sundwick, in Westphalia, described by Pro- 
fessor Goldfuss. 

" Dr. Buckland include* *:he molar teeth and a large tusk of » 



THE HOG TRIBE. 17 

hone found in the cave of Hiitton, in the Mendip hills, wi:!! the true 
fossils of that receptacle, such as the remains of the mammoth, Spe- 
laean bear, &;c. With respect to cave-bones, however, it is sometimes 
difficult to produce conviction as to the contemporaneity of extinct 
and recent species." 

This observation applies merely to cave-bones, and not to such as 
are imbedded in deposits with other remains. 

The oldest fossil remains of the hog, from British strata, which 
Professor Owen has examined, were from fissures in the red crag 
Cprobably miocene) of Newbourne, near Woodbridge, Suffolk : — 
"They were associated with teeth of an extmct felis, about the size 
of a leopard, with those of a bear, and with remains of a large cervus. 
These mammalian remains were found with the ordinary fossils of 
the red crag ; they had undergone the same process of trituration, 
and were impregnated with the same coloring matter, as the associa- 
ted bones and teeth of fishes, acknowledged to be derived from the 
regular strata of the red crag. These mammal iferous beds have 
been proved by Mr. Lyell to be older ^han the fliivio-marine, or 
Norwich crag, in which remains of the mastodon, rhinoceros, and 
horse have been discovered ; and still older than the fresh-w^atei 
pleistocene deposits, from which the remains of the mammolh, rhino- 
ceros, &c., are obtained in such abundance." To this the Professor 
adds: — "1 have met with some satisfactory instances of the associa- 
tion of fossil remains of a species of hog with those of the mam- 
moth, in the newer pliocene fresh-water formations of England." 

The most usual situations how^ever, in which the fossilized I: ones of 
(he hog are met with, are in peat-bogs, often at the depth of many 
feet, and in association with the remains of the wolf, the beaver, the 
roebuck, and a gigantic red-deer; generally they underline the bed 
of peat, and rest on shell-marl or alluvium. Of the identity of these 
bones with those of the ordinary wild hog, all doubt has been remov- 
ed by the most rigorous compariscms ; nevertheless, we do not assert 
that no other species of sus m;iy not have anciently existed, which, 
like the mammoth and the mastodon, has become extinct ; we mean 
only to say that the bones of the s is scrofa are among the fossil 
remains of our island and the continent of Europe. Professor Owen 
gives an excellent figure of the fossil skull of a wild boar, from drift 
In a fissue of the free-stone quari'ies in the Isle of Portland. 

Leaving the wild hog, let us direct our attention more immedi- 
ately to that breed which, time immxCmorial, has been reared in capti- 
vity, and valued for the sake of its flesh, prepared in different ways 
as food for man. 

" One of the most singular circumstances," says Mr. Wilson 
{Quarterly Journal of Agricu'ture.^ '-in the domestic history of this 
animal is the immense extent of its distribution, more especially in 
fur removed and insulated spots inhabited by semibarbarians, where 



18 THE HOG. 

tlie wild species is ei firely unlcnovfn. For example, the South Sea 
Islands, on their discovery by Europeans, were found to be well 
stocked with a small black-legged hog ; and the traditionary belief 
of the people, in regard to the original introduction of these animals, 
showed that they were supposed to be as anciently descended as the 
people themselves. Yet the latter had no knowledge of the wild 
boar or any other animal of the hog kind, from which the domestic 
breed might have been supposed to be derived. The hog is in these 
islands the principal quadruped, and is more carefully cultivated 
than any other. The bread-fruit tree, either in the natural state or 
formed into sour paste, is its fiivorite food, and it is also abundantly 
supplied with yams, eddoes, and other vegetables. This choice of a 
nutritive and abundant diet, according to Foster, renders the flesh 
juicy and delicious; and the fat, thoiigli rich, is not less delicate to 
the taste than the finest butter. The Otaheitans and other South Sea 
Islanders were in the habit of presenting pigs at the morais^ as the 
most savory and acceptable offering to their deities which they had ij 
in their power to bestow. They covered the sacred pig with a piect. 
of fine cloth, and left it to decay nenr the hallowed spot." 

The pigs of these islands are evidently of the Cochin-Chinese or 
Siamese variety, or at least are closely allied to it, and were no 
doubt introduced at some remote period by the colonists of Malay- 
an origin. Cook found the fowl, as well as the hog, at Ulietea and 
others of the Society Islands. 

It has been doubted, and not without some reason, -whether the 
domestic breed, so widely spread, is in Qvevy country attributable 
to the same specific origin. Certain it is that the various domestic 
races offer marked distinctive peculiarities, and if Mr. Eyton be 
correct, differences not only in the length of the snout, size of the 
ears, and symmetry of the body, but also in the number of the verte- 
brae of the spinal colunin. in the Proreedinqs of the Zoological 
Society for February 28th, 1837, p. 23, will be found the following 
observations by T. C. Eyton, Esq., on the osteological peculiarities 
to which we have alluded : — " Having during the last year prepared 
the skeleton of a male pig of the pure Chinese breed, brought over 
by Lord Northampton, I was surprised to find that a very great 
difference existed in the number of the vertebroe from that given in 
the Legons d'' Anatomic Compares, vol. i., ed. 1835, p. 182, under the 
head either of Sanglier, or Cochon Domestique. A short time 
afterwards, through the kindness of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart., M. P., 
I prepared the skeleton of a female pig from Africa; this also differ- 
ed, as also does the English long-legged sort, as it is commonly 
called. 

"The following table will show the differences in the number of 
the vertebrae in each skeleton with those given in the work above 
quoted : — 



THE HOG TRIBE. 



19 



Vertebrae. 


Enslish 
Jlale 


African 
Female. 


Chinese 
Male. 


Logons d'Anat. 
Coiiip. Sanglier. 


Coch.Dom. 


Cervical, 

Dorsal, 

Lumbar, 

Sacral, 

Caudal, 


7 

15 

6 

5 

21 


7 

13 

6 

5 

13 


7 

15 

4 

4 

19 


7 

14 

5 

4 

20 


7 

14 

5 

4 

23 


Total, 


55 


44 


49 


50 


53 



'It is possible that some of the caudal vertebrae may be missing. 

" The Chinese was imjDorted into this country for the purpose of 
improving our native sorts, with which it breeds freely, and the off- 
spring are again fruitful. I, this winter, saw a fine litter of pigs by- 
Sir Rowland Hill's African hoar, imported with the female I describ- 
ed, the mothfr of which was a common pig ; time will show whether 
they M'iil he again fruitful. 

"From what has been stated, the result appears to me to be, that 
eitlier of the above three pigs must be considered as distinct species, 
(and which, should the offspring of the two latter again produce 
yoimg, would do away with the theory of Hunter, that the young 
of two distinct species are not fruitful,) or we cannot consider osteo- 
k)gical character a criterion of species. 

"I have been induced to offer the above, not with any desire of 
species-making, but of adding something towards the number of 
recorded facts, by which the question what is a species, must be 
answered." 

Closely-allied species may produce offspring fertile inter sc, although 
we have no proof positive of the fact in the case in question ; for 
when domestication produces decided differences of external form, 
why should it be difficult to admit of the extension of the ditTer- 
ences to internal parts also, and especially to the osseous frame- 
M'ork, on which the form and symmetry of the body so greatly depend, 
or- why the law of variation should be confined in its influence to 
one part, and restricted from another. If it be admitted that the 
bo?ies may be somewhat modified in length or stoutness, we see not 
why it is that a numerical variation in the bones of the vertebral 
column should be so great a stumbling-block, especially seeing that 
accidental (and perhaps hereditary) variations are far from being 
imcommon, both in men and others of the mammalia. We can 
easily conceive that a portion of the osseous system, offering in al- 
most every species of quadruped some variation in the number oi' 
its constituent parts, should be also the most likely to exhibit such 
variation, where a species long subjected to the modifying influence 
of human control, has branched out into various breeds or races. 



20 THE HOG. 

distinguished by decided external characteristics. It \\ O'lld he inte- 
resting and important ,o kn^w, whether the numerical ratio of the 
vertebrjTe, as given in the foregoing table, is constant in each race ; 
and also whether the same variation does not obtain among others 
of our domestic animals, divided into numerous breeds or races, 
as the dog, the sheep, and the goat. The subject has not been treat- 
ed so fully and extensively as it deser\es. With respect to the 
caudal vertebrse, indeed, we know that they are subject to great nu- 
merical variation in most of our don^estic animals ; witness the dog 
and even the common fowl, of which latter, a tailless breed, perpe- 
tuated from generation to generation, is far from being uncommon. 
What takes place in one part of the spinal column may, w^e conceive, 
occur also in another and more important portion, to some, if not to 
so great an extent; and the modification may moreover be trans- 
mitted from one generation to another. 

Examples of extraordinary modification in other parts of the 
skeleton, transmissible from generation to generation, may be here 
adduced in confirmation of our views. Aristotle notices a race of 
hogs with undivided toes, or rather with hoofs consolidated together; 
and Linnteus informs us that a similar variety of the hog is not un- 
frequent in the neighborhood of Upsal, in Sweden. A still more 
extraordinary case of modification of the osseous framework, is re- 
corded in the Proceedings of the Z(.olo<jical Society for 1833, p. 16, 
where will be found the notice of a race of pigs with only two legs, 
the hinder extremities being entirely wanting. The communication, 
with drawings of two individuals, was made by Colonel Haliam, 
who states that these animals were observed " at a town on the 
coast in the Tanjore country, in the year 1795; they were from a 
father and mother of a similar make, and the pigs bred from them 
were the same." Thus, then, accidental malformations, either by 
excess or deficiency, may become transmissible, and so perpetuate 
themselves. 

The views of a WM.Mter !r ^ht Penny Cyclopaedia^ on the subject 
of the osteological d^^'ticuces observable in domestic swine, are 
much in accordance with our own. Undoubtedly, he remarks, such 
records as those given by Mr. Eyton are valuable, but he thinks 
that the inference is precipitate ; adding, that John Hunter's theori-es 
are not so easily done away with, and that osteological character 
will continue to be a criterion of species, notwithstanding the difler- 
ences sit f)rth. He says, " B}' the term pig, we understjind the 
African and Chinese varieties of the hog. Phacoclioerus cannot be 
meant, or if would be stated. The pure Chinese breed was im|i(ii±ed 
long ngo ; and for years its stock, bred from its union with our Eng- 
lish varieties, has been known in our farm-yards. The varieties 
bred by man from the wild hog, are spread all ovei the world in a 
dojiiesticatcd state; and there is no more reason to doubt that the 



DERIVATION OF THE TERM HOG. 21 

result, a union of an African pig with a Hampshire hog, would be 
fruitful, than that a breed composed of the Berkshire, Chinese, and 
Neapolitan, would produce a good litter. Now, if we take little or 
no note of the differences in the caudal vertebrae, for the reason 
assigjned by Mr, Eyton among others, what remain ? Differences 
not exceeding two in the dorsal vertebrae, tw^o in the lumbar verte- 
tebrce, and one in the sacral vertebras, after a course of domestica- 
tion no one knows how long. We know what breeding will do with 
dogs. Take a greyhound and a true shepherd's dog, for example, 
to say nothing of tailless cats. We know what it will do among 
poultry : it will take away the drooping feathers of the cock's tail in 
those bantams known to fanciers as hen-cocks, (Sir J, Sebright's 
breed,) and remove the tail-feathers altogether (rumpless fowls) ; 
whilst in the top-knotted varieties an osteological difference is pro- 
duced in the cranium. Man has occasionally an additional lumbar 
vertebra3. This accidental excess was first detected in the negro, and 
was laid hold of by those who would have made him a different spe- 
cies ; but by-and-by they found a white man with one more vertebra 
than he ought to have had, and wisely said no more about it. 

We have, then, no solid or sufficient grounds for believing that, 
widely as the domestic hog is spread, and remote and insulated as 
are some of the localities in which it has been discovered by voy- 
agers, it is derived from different sources ; although, as we have 
shown, there are more wild species of the restricted genus sus tham 
zoologists formerly suspected. In making these remarks, we ma;y 
add, that as to every general rule there are exceptions, so some are 
to be found here. The Papuan hog, caught and reared in captivity, 
is distinct, and it is probable that the domestic hogs of Borneo, 
and of some of the islands adjacent, are derived from the wild 
races there indigenous. Be this as it may, we do not mean to insist 
upon the fact ; our subject is the ordinary hog, as we see it in its 
state of contented domestication in Europe, and especially our own 
country. 



CHAPTER II. 

Derivation of the term Hog — ^Tlie Hog was greatly esteemed by the Romans — Worshipped by 
Bome of the ancients — Swine's flesh prohiljiled by the law of Mose&— By that of Mohammed 
—Despised by the Egyptians. 

The term Hog is stated by Carpenter, to be derived from the 
Hebrew word "["^yt, by which this animal was designated among iha 
Hebrews, a word derived from ip, to encompass or surround^ sug- 
gested by the round figure, in his fat and most natural state. Boch- 
art and Schultens, how^evei are more inclined to refer the Hebre^f 



22 THE HOfJ. 

noun to the Arabit sense cf the verb, viz., to have narrow eyes, and there 
is much o^ the probability in their supposition. In some respects 
ewine seem to form an intermediate link between the whole-footed 
and cloven-footed animals, and the others to occupy the same ground 
between the cloven-footed and the digitative; but look at them in 
what point of view we may, these animals present various peculiar 
characteristics, and are of vast importance as affording the means 
cf sustenance to millions of human beings in all parts of the world. 
The hog is a perfect cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every cli- 
mate ; increasing rapidly, being more prolific than any other domes- 
tic animal, with the exception of the rabbit; easily susceptible of 
hnprovement, and quickly attaining to maturity. 

As far back as the records of history enable us to go, the hog ap- 
pears to have been known, and his flesh made use of as food. 1491 
years before Christ, Moses gave those law^s to the Israelites which 
have occasioned so much discussion, and given rise to the many 
opinions which we shall presently have to speak of; and it is quite 
evident that had not pork then been the prevailing food of thjvt 
nation, such stringent commandments and prohibitions would not 
have been necessary. The various allusions to this kind of meat, 
which occur again and again, in the writings of the old Greek au- 
thors, plainly testify the esteem in which it was held among this 
nation, and it appears that the Romans actually made the art of 
breeding, rearing, and fattening pigs a study, wdiich they designated 
Proculatio, Every art was put in practice to impart a finer and 
more delicate flavor to the flesh ; the poor animals were fed, and 
crammed, and tortured to death in various ways, many of them too 
horrible to be described, in order to gratify the epicurism and glut- 
tony of this people. Pliny informs us that they fed swine on dried 
figs, and drenched them to repletion with honeyed wine, in order to 
produce a diseased and monstrous-sized liver. The Porcus Trojnnus, 
so called in allusion to the Trojan horse, was a very celebrated dish 
and one that eventually became so extravagantly expensive that a 
sumptuary law was passed respecting it. This dish consisted in a 
whole hog. wnth the entrails drawn out, and the inside stuffed with 
thrushes, larks, beccaficoes, oysters, nightingales, and delicacies of 
every kind, and the whole bathed in wine and rich gravies. Another 
great dish was a hog served whole, the one side roasted and the 
other boiled. 

Varro states that the Gauls produced the largest and finest swine's 
flesh that w\as brought into Italy ; and, according to Strabo, in the 
reign of Augustus, they supplied Rome and nearly all Itiily with 
gammons, hog-puddings, hanf.s, and sausnges. This nation and the 
Spaniards appear to have kept immense droves of swine, but scarcely 
any other kind of live stock ; and various authors mention swine as 
forming a part of the live stock of most Roman farms. 



SWrXE'S FLESH PROHIBITED IN HOI CLIMATES. 23 

In fact the hog was held in very high esteem among the early 
nations of Europe, and some of the ancients have even paid it di- 
vine honors. In the island of Crete it was regarded as sacred. 
This animal was always sacrificed to Ceres at the beginning of har- 
vest, and to Bacchus at the commencement of the vintage, by the 
Greeks ; probably, it has been suggested, " because this animal is 
fiqually hostile to the growing corn and the ripening grape." 

The Jews, the Egyptians, and the followers of Mohammed, alone 
appear to have abstained from it. To the former nation it is ex- 
pressly forbidden by the laws of Moses. Leviticus xi. 7, says: 
"And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, 
yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean unto you." Mohammed 
probably founded his prohibition on this one, or was induced, by 
the prejudices of his followers, to make it. Numerous theoriey 
have been advanced by different authors to account for this remark- 
able prohibition uttered by Moses against a species of food generally 
so wholesome and nutritious as the flesh of the hog. Maimonides 
says : " The principal reason why the law prohibited the swine was, 
because of their extreme filthiness, and their eating so many impu 
rities ; for it is well known with what care and precision the law 
forbids all filthiness and dirt, even in the fields and in the camp, not 
to mention in the cities. Now, had swine been permitterl, the 
public places, and streets, and houses, would have been made nui- 
sances." 

Tacitus states that the Jews abstained from it in consequence of a 
leprosy by which they had formerly severely suflfered, and to which 
the hog is very subject. And several other writers concur in this 
view, stating that it was on account of the flesh being strong, olea- 
ginous, difficult of digestion, and liable to produce cutaneous diseases, 
that it was forbidden. Michaelis observes, that throughout the whole 
climate under which Palestine is situated, leprosy is an endemic 
disease ; and the Israelites being overrun with it at the period of 
their quitting Egypt, Moses found it necessary to enact a variety of 
laws respecting it, and the prohibiting the use of swine was one of 
these. Plutarch {de Is?de) affirms that those who drank the milk 
of sv/ine became blotchy and leprous. 

M. Sonnini states that in Egypt, Syria, and even the southern 
parts of Greece, swine's flesh, although white and delicate, is so 
flabby and surcharged with fat, as to disagree with the strongest 
stomachs, and this will account for its prohiloition by the priests and 
legislators of hot clima'tes, such an abstinence being absolutely ne- 
cessary to health beneath the burning suns of Egypt and Arabia. 
" The Egyptians," he says, " were only allowed to eat pork once a 
year, on the feast-day of the moon, and then they sacrificed a nuia 
t>cr of these animals to that planet. If at any other time an Egyp. 
aan even touched a hog, he was obliged to plunge into the Nile, 



2i THE BOG. 

clothes and all, to purify himself, The swineherds formed rui isn- 
lated race, outcasts from society, forbidden to enter a temple, or 
mtermarry with othei f^tmilies." Hence it probably is, that, in the 
beautiful parable of th'^ Prodigal Son, this unhappy young man ia 
represented as being reduced to the office of a swineherd, that being 
considered as the lowest possible degradation. 

Others are of opinion that this and many other of the prohibitions 
and ordinances established by Moses were solely for the purpose of 
distinguishing the Jews from other nations, and making them v/hat 
they are to this day in all countries and under all climates, " a pe- 
culiar people." Others, again, assert that it was with a view to 
correct their gross and gluttonous habits that none but the simplest 
and mildest kinds of animal food were permitted to the Jews. And, 
lastly, another maintains that the swine was thus declared an abomi- 
nation in the sight of God, as a lesson to the Jews to abstain from 
the sensual and disgusting habits to which this animal is given. 

The aversion to swine has descended to the Jews, Egyptians, and 
followers of Mohammed of modern times. The Copts rear no 
pigs, indeed this animal is scarcely known in most of the cities of 
Lower Egypt; and the poorest Jew would sooner starve than touch 
a morsel of this forbidden food, even though the presumed cause of 
prohibition has long ceased to exist, and he is removed to colder 
climes, where pork is both wholesome and nutritious. 

By the precepts, warnings, and threatenings of the prophets, we 
read that, so great was the detestation excited in the minds of the 
Jewish nation against this animal, that they would not even pollute 
their lips by pronouncing its name, but always alluded to it as " that 
beast," " that thing ;" and we read in the history of the Maccabees, 
that Eleazer, a principal scribe, being compelled by Antiochus Epi- 
phanes to open his mouth and receive swine's flesh, spit it forth, and 
went of his accord to the torment, choosing rather to suffer death 
than break the divine law and offend his nation. 

And yet it is well known that immense numbers of swine were 
reared in the country of the Jews, probably for the purpose of gain, 
and in order to supply strangers and the neighboring idolaters; an.l 
it has been supposed, that it was in order to punish this violation of 
the Divine coniTnandinents that our Saviour permitted the herd of 
swine to be affected with that sudden disorder which caused them to 
rush headlong into the lake of Genesareth. 

Martin says — at what period the hog was reclaimed, and by what 
nation, we cannot tell. As far back as the records of history go, we 
find notices of this animal, and of the use of its flesh as food. By 
some nations it was held in abhorrence, and prohibited as food ; 
while among others its flesh was accounted a great delicacy. By 
the Mosaic law, the Jews were forbidden to use the flesh of the swine 
as food — it was unclean; and the followers of Mohammed, borrov^' 



GENERAL OBSERVAnONS. 25 

ing their ritual from the institutions of Moses, hold the flesh of iho 
hog in utter abhorrence. Paxton, in his Illustrations of Scripture, 
vol. i., says, " The hog was justly classed by the Jews among the 
vilest animals in the scale of animated nature ; and it cannot be 
doubted that his keeper generally shared in the contempt and abhor- 
rence whi^h he had excited. The prodigal son in the parable had 
spent his all in riotous living, and was ready to perish through want, 
b.jfore he submitted to the humiliating employment of feeding 
swine." 

We pass over Paxton's description of the hog as the " vilest (jf 
animals," because there is no sense in the expression, and its pre- 
sumed meaning is unworthy notice. It cannot, however, be doubted, 
from the passage in Luke, (xv. 15,) and from others well known, 
that herds of swine were kept by the Jews, perhaps for sale and 
profit. Dr. J. Kitto says, " There does not appear to be any reason 
in the law of Moses why the hog should be held in such peculiar 
abomination. There seems nothing to have prevented the Jews, if 
they had been so inclined, to rear pigs for sale, or for the use of the 
lard, in the Talmud there are some indications that this was actu- 
ally done ; and it was probably for such purpose that the herds of 
swine, mentioned in the New Testament, were kept, although it is 
usual to consider that they were kept by the foreign settlers in the 
land. Indeed the story which accounts for the peculiar aversion of 
the Hebrews to the hog, assumes that it did not originate until about 
one hundred and thirty years before Christ, and that previously 
some Jews were in the habit of rearing hogs for the purposes indi- 
cated. 

The same writer, in a note upon Luke viii. 32, enters at greater 
length into this subject. " We have already," he says, " intimated 
our belief that there was much error in supposing that the law which 
declared that certain kinds of animals were not to be used for food, 
should be understood as prohibiting them from rearing, for any other 
purpose, the animals interdicted as food. There was certainly 
nothing ir. the law to prevent them from rearing hogs, more than 
from rearing asses, if they saw fit to do so. It appears, in fact, that 
the Jews did rear pigs for sale to their heathen neighbors, till this 
was forbidden after the principle of refining upon the law had been 
introduced. This prohibition demonstrates the previous existence 
of the practice; and it did not take effect till about seventy years 
B.C., when it is alleged to have originated in a circumstance which 
occurred between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, the sons of King 
Alexander Janneus. Aristobulus was besieging Hyrcanus in Jeru- 
salem ; but not wishing to interrupt the services of the temple, he 
permitted an arrangement under which money was let down from 
the temple in a box, in return for which the lambs required for the 
daily sacrifices were sent up. It at last occurred to a mischievous 



26 THE HOG. 

old man. ' who understooi the wisdom of the Greeks,' thai there 
would be no overcoming the adverse party while they employed 
themselves in the service of God ; and therefore one morning he 
put a hog in the box, instead of a lamb. When half way up, the 
pig reared himself up, and happened to rest his fore feet upon the 
temple wall, whereupon continues the story, Jerusalem and the land 
of Israel quaked. In consequence of this, two orders were issued 
by the Council: 'Cursed be he that breedeth hogs ;' and ' Cursed 
be he who teacheth his son the learning of the Greeks.' Such is 
the origin of the order against rearing hogs, as related in the Baby- 
lonian Talmud. One of the enforcements of this prohibition is 
curious, as showing for what purposes besides sale, hogs had been 
reared by the Jews. ' It is forbidden to rear any hog, even though 
hogs should come to a man by inheritance, in order to obtain profit 
from its skin or from its fat, for anointing or for light.' From this 
it would seem that the Jews had been wont to make ointments with 
hog's lard, and that they did not exclusively use oil for lights, but 
fat also, which was probably done according to a method we have 
often seen in the East, by introducing a wick into a lump of grease, 
which is set in a lamp, or in a round hollow vessel, made for the 
purpose ; the heat of the kindled wick, as in a candle, gradually 
melts as much of the feit as is required to feed the flame. The in- 
convenience of the deprivation of the useful lard of hogs for this 
and other purposes, seems to have given occasion to an explanation, 
that the prohibition was not to be understood to imply that the fat 
of hogs might not be obtained by purchase from the Gentiles. The 
prohibition of keeping hogs does not appear to have had complete 
effect, as regulations are made concerning towns in which hogs were 
kept ; and the keepers of swine are mentioned as contemptible and 
infiimous wretches, so that it was a favorite term of abuse to call 
a person a hog-breeder or a swineherd. Although, therefore, 
it may be likely that the herds of swine here mentioned were the 
property of the heathen, who certainly did live with the Jews in 
the towns of this neighborhood, (the country of the Gadarenes,) it is 
not impossible that they belonged to the Jews, who kept them in 
despite of the prohibitions we have mentioned." 

Among the ancient Egyptians, although the figure of the hog 
occurs several times well drawn at Edfou, this animal was held in 
detestation. " Swine," says Herodotus, " are accounted such impure 
beasts by the Egyptians, that if a man touches one even by acci- 
dent, he presently hastens to the river, ar5 in all his clothes plunges 
himself into the water. For this reason, swineherds alone of the 
Egyptians are not suffered to enter any of their temples ; neither 
will any man give his daughter in marriage to one of that profession, 
nor take a wife born of such parents, so that they are necessitated 
to intermarry among themselves. The Egyptians are forbidden to 



GENERAL OBSERVAlxONS. 21 

sacrifice swine to any other deities than to Bacchus and to the moon; 
when completely at full, at which time they may eat of the flesh. 
When they offer this sacrifice to the moon, and have killed the 
victim, they put the end of the tail, with the spleen and fat, mto a 
caul found in the belly of the animal, all w^hicli they burn on the 
sacred fire, and eat the rest of the flesh on the day of the full moon, 
though at any other time they would not taste it. Those who, on 
account of their poverty, cannot bear the expense of this sacrifice, 
mould a paste into the form of a hog, and make their offering. In 
the evening of the festival of Bacchus, though every one be obliged 
to kill a swine before the door of his house, yet he immediately 
restores the carcass to the swineherd who sold it." 

This aversion tow^ards the hog, among the ancient Egyptians and 
the Jews, (we need not here notice the Mohammedans or the Brah- 
minical tribes of India,) is very remarkable. Among the Greeks 
and. Romans the flesh of the swine was held in estimation, although 
the swineherd attracted little notice from the poet. Why, then, in 
Western Asia and Egypt should it have been forbidden 1 We at- 
tribute it entirely to mystical or religious motives, which we are 
not quite able to appreciate. 

The following passage from Griffith's Cuvier is worthy our consi- 
deration, although it does not bring conviction to our mind ; it is 
rather plausible than demonstrative : — " In hot climates the flesh of 
swine is not good. M. Sonnini remarks, that in Egypt, Syria, and 
even the southern parts of Greece, this meat, though very white and 
delicate, is so far from being firm, and is so overcharged with fat. 
that it disagrees with the stronojest stomachs. It is therefore consi- 
dered unwholesome, and this will account for its proscription by the 
legislators and priests of the East. Such an abstinence was doubt- 
less indispensable to health, under the burning suns of Egypt and 
Arabia. The Egyptians were permitted to eat pork only once a 
year — on the feast day of the moon — and then they sacrificed a 
number of these animals to that planet. At other times, if any 
one even touched a hog, he was obliged immediately to plunge into 
the river Nile, with his clothes on, by way of purification. The 
swineherds formed an isolated class, the outcasts of society. They 
were interdicted from entering the temples, or intermarrying with 
any other families. This aversion for swine has been transmitted to 
the modern Egyptians. The Copts rear no pigs, any more than do 
the followers of Mohammed. The Jews, who borrcnved from the 
Egyptians their horror of pigs, as well as many other peculiariiies, 
continue their abstinence from thern in colder climates, where they 
form one of the most useful articles of subsistence." 

If the hog in warm climates is so unwholesome as food, how hap 
pens it that the Chinese rear this animal in such numbers for the 
table ] and how happens it that the hare (if indeed this animal be 



28 , THE Hoa. 

intended) was forLidden by the Mosaic laws OrS food ? Surelj 
the same objection could not apply to this latter animal as to the 
hog. Whatever the motive might have been, both among the 
Egyptians and the Jews, which led them to forbid the use of 
swine's flesh on the table, a regard to the health of the people 
was not one. Locusts were permitted by the latter, but creep- 
ing things in general denied, as were also fishes destitute of ap- 
parent scales. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, the flesh 
ol' the pig was held in great estimation. The art of rearing, 
breeding, or fattening these animals, was made a complete stu- 
dy ;and the dishes prepared from the meat were dressed with 
epicurean refinement, and in many modes. One dish consisted 
of a young pig whole, stuffed with beccaficoes and other small 
birds, together with oysters, and served in wine and rich gravy. 
This dish was termed Porcus Trojanus^ in allusion to the wooden 
horse, filled with men, which the Trojans introduced into their 
city — an unpleasant allusion, one would think, seeng that the 
Romans boasted their Trojan descent. However, such was the 
name of this celebrated and most expensive dish, so costly, indeed, 
that sumptuary regulations were passed respecting it. 

Esteemed, however, as the flesh of the hog was by the Greeks 
and Romans, commonly as the animal was kept, and carefully and 
even curiously as it was fed, in order to gratify the appetites of the 
wealthy and luxurious, yet the swineherd, as may be inferred from 
the silence of the classic writers, and especially of the poets who 
painted rural life, was not held in much estimation. No gods or 
neroes are described as keeping swine. Theocritus never intro- 
duces the swineherd into his idyls, nor does Virgil admit him into 
his eclogues, among his tuneful shepherds. Homer indeed honors 
Eumaeus, the swineherd of Ulysses, with many commendations ; but 
he is a remarkable exception. Perhaps a general feeling prevailed, 
and still in some measure prevails, that the feeders of the gluttonous 
and wallowing swine became assimilated in habits and manners to 
the animals under their charge ; or, it may be, that the prejudices 
of the Egyptians relative to this useful class of men, extended to 
(ireece or Italy, giving a bias to popular opinion. 

From the earliest times in our own island, the hog has been re- 
garded as a very important animial, and vast herds were tended by 
swineherds, who watched over their safety in the woods, and col- 
lected them under shelter at night. Its flesh was the staple article 
of consumption in every household, and much of the wealth of the 
rich and free portion of the community consisted in these animals. 
Hence bequests of swine, with land for their support, were often 
made ; rights and privileges connected with their feeding, and the 
extent of woodland to be occupied by a given number, were granteri 
according to established rules. In an ancient Saxon grant, quoted 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 29 

by Sharon Turner in his Histoi-y of the An^Jo- Saxons, we find the 
right of pasturage for swine conveyed by deed : — "I give food for 
seventy swine in that woody allotment which the countrymen call 
Wolferdinlegh." The locality of the swine's pasturage, as here 
described, has a somewhat ominous title, referring as it does to the 
haunt of an animal, fioni incursions of which, on flocks of sheep 
md herds of swine, during the Saxon period of our history, both 
he sliepherd and the swineherd had to preserve their respective 
jhargcs. The men employed in the duties — generally thralls, or 
borne slaves of the soil — were assisted by powerful dogs, capable 
of contending with a wolf, at least until the swineherd came with 
his heavy quarter-staff or spear to the rescue. In Sir Walter Scott's 
novel of Ivanhoe^ the character of Gurth is a true, but of course 
somewhat overcolored picture of an Anglo-Saxon swineherd, as is 
that of his master of a large landed proprietor, a great proportion of 
whose property consisted in swine, and v*hose rude but hospitable 
board, was liberally supplied with the flesh. 

Long after the close of the Saxon dynasty, the practice of feed- 
hig swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was continued, 
till our forests were cut down and the land laid open for the plough ; 
even yet, in some districts, as the New Forest of Hampshire, the 
custom is not discontinued, and in various parts of the countrv, 
where branching oaks in the hedgerow overshadow the rural and 
secluded lanes, the cottagers turn out their pig or pigs, under the care 
of some boy, to pick up the fallen acorns in autunm. Pigs turned 
out upon stubble fields after harvest, often find in oak copses, in 
October and November, a welcome addition to their fare. 

The large forests of England were formerly royal property ; 
nevertheless the inhabitants- of the adjacent towns, villages, and 
farms enjoyed both before and long after the Conquest, under cer- 
tain conditions of a feudal nature, and probably varying according 
to circumstances, and the tenures by which lands were held, the 
right of fattening their swine in these woodlands. The lawful period 
for depasturing swine in the royal forests extended from fifteen 
days before Michaelmas, to forty days afterwards, and this was 
termed the pawnage month. This term was not, however, very 
strictly adhered to ; many herds were suffered to remain in the 
forest during the whole year, the consequence of which was tha 
numbers became feral, and were not collected by their owneri 
without difficulty. Little damage would be done in the woods by 
these swine, but, no doubt, like their wild progenitors, they would 
take every opportunity of invading the cultivated grounds, and of 
rioting in the fields of green or ripening corn. 

3* 



30 THE HOG. 



CHAPTEE. III. 

The early history of Swine — Lp°:endary and authentic records respecting tlie Keeping' of thenj 
in Enjjiand — Ancienl Welsh hivvs reli'.live io Swiue — Tiie forests of Enijfland — Swineherds— 
Their mode of managing their herds — Calabrian Swineherds — Horn used to assemble the 
granting troop — The Sehwein-General — Herds of Swine i\ept in France — Value of Pigs- 
Some vindication of them — Anecdote proving tiieir te:ielMl)i!ity— Sagacity of a I'ig^ 
Some demonstration of Memory in one— Attachment to itidividuils — Swkie not innately 
fil'hy animals — They are possessed of more docility than they usually have credit for — Their 
exquisite sense of smell — Pigs said to foretell rain and wind. 

In Greece and the neighboring ishinds, swine were common at an 
early period, and were kept in large droves by swineherds ; for we 
read in Homer's Odyssey, which is supposed to have been written 
upwards of 900 years b. c, that Ulysses, on his return from the 
Trojan war, first sought the dwelling of Eum{\jus, his faithful ser- 
vant, and the keeper of his swine : and that office must then have 
been held in high esteem, or it would not have been performed by 
that wise and good old man. 

The rude tables of the ancient Britons were chiefly supplied from 
their herds of swine, and the flesh of these animals furnished them 
with a great variety of dishes. (Cassar, book i. chap 1.) 

Sharon Turner, in his History of the Anglo-Saxons, while enu- 
merating their live stock, states they had " great abundance of 
swine ;" and adds, that although horned cattle are occasionally men- 
tioned in grants, wills, and exchange of property, swine are naost 
frequently spoken of. The country then abounded with woods and 
forests, and these are seldom particularized without some mention 
being made of the swine fed in them. These animals appear in fact 
to have constituted a considei-able item in the wealth of an indi- 
vidual, for legacies of them often occur in wills. Thus Alfred, a 
nobleman, bequeathed to his relatives a hide of land with one hun- 
dred swine, and directs that another hundred shall be given for 
masses for the benefit of his soul ; and to his daughters he leaves two 
thousand. So Elf helm left land to St. Peter's at Westminster, on 
the express condition that they should feed a herd of two hundred 
sw^ine for the use of his wife. 

In the original Doomsday -Book for Hampshire, where an estimate 
of the value of the lands and forests belonging to the king, the mo- 
nasteries, the hundreds, and other divisions is given, the number of 
hogs which can be fed on each separate portion is invariably spe- 
cified. 

In the oldest of the Welsh Triads, (which treat of the events of 
Britain ir. general,) we find evidence of the early domestication 
of swine, for one of these contains a recital of the actions of three 
powerful swineherds in the Isle of Britain, " over whom it was not 
po^eible to prevail or gain," and who restore! the swine to their 



SWINE IN THE FORESTS OF ENGLANr>. 31 

owners with increase. Some of the fabulous narrations blenJed 
vvitii the history of these swineherds have been attributed by anti- 
quarians to a period aiitccedent to Christianity. 

In the law^s of Howel Dha, there is a chapter on the value of ani- 
inals, in which it is stated "that the price of a little pig from the 
time it is born until it grows to burrow, is one penny ; when it ceases 
sucking, which is at the end of three months, it is worth twopence ; 
from that time it goes to the wood with the swine, and Jt is consi- 
dered as a swine, and its value is fourpence ; from the Feast of St. 
John unto the 1st day of January, its value is fifteenpence ; from 
the 1st of January unto the Feast of St. John, its value is twenty- 
four pence ; and from that time forward its value shall be thirty 
pence, the same as its mother." 

"The qualities of a sow are, that she breeds pigs and do not de- 
vour her young ones. The seller must also warrant her sound 
against the quinsy for three days and nights after she is sold. If she 
ishould not possess these qualities, one third of her price must be 
returned. The value of a boar is equal to the value of three sows.'' 

The British forests, which formerly occupied the greater part of 
England, were peopled by the swinish multitude. Hertfordshire 
was nearly covered with wood and forest land; Buckinghamshire 
boasted its magnificent Bern Wood ; Hampshire, its extensive New 
Forest ; nor were the other counties destitute of these sylvan retreats, 
which have latterly vanished before the axe of the woodman and 
the industry of the husbandman. 

In 1646 Norwood in Surrey is described as containing 830 acres 
from which the inhabitants of Croydon " have herbage for all kinds 
of cattle, and mastage for swine without stint." 

The right of the forest borderers to fatten their swine in the vari- 
ous foresis, formcVly royal property, is very ancient, being evidently 
anterior to the Conquest. At first a small tax or fee was paid by 
those holding this right; but w^hether this went to the crown, or 
consisted in a certain gratuity to the forest ranger or the swineherd, 
is nowhere specified in the records. This privilege, like all others, 
was greatly abused ; for many of the keepers availed themselves of 
it, and kept large herds of swine which they suffered to run the 
fo'rests during the wdiole of the year, doing exceeding damage to 
the timber as well as to the land. 

The actual period for which it was lawful to turn swine into the 
royal woods and forests for masting, was from fifteen days before 
Michaelmas to forty days afterwards, and this was termed the pawn- 
age month. 

Nor was the p.-actice of feeding swine in herds, peculiar to this 
country. In Calabria they are grazed in herds, and the keeper uses 
a kind'of bagpipe, the tones of which, when the period arrives for 
cheir being driven home, quickly collects the scattered groups from 
every part. In TusCany it is the same. 



32 THE HOG. 

Ill Germany almost every village has its swineherd, who at brealt 
of day goes from house to house collecting his noisy troop, blowing 
his still more noisy cow-horn, and cracking his clumsy whip, until 
the place echoes with the din. The following very amusing acaount 
of that important personage, the Schtoein- General^ has lately been 
given in a popular work : — 

" Every morning 1 hear the blast of a horn, when, proceeding 
from almost every door in the street, behold a pig! The pigs ge- 
nerally proceed of their own accord ; but shortly after they have 
passed, there comes a little bare-headed, bare-footed, stunted child 
about eleven years old. Thislittle attendant of the old pig-driver 
facetiously called at Langen-Schwalbach the ' Schwein -General, 
ktiows every house from which a pig ought to have proceeded : she 
can tell by the door being open or shut, or even by footmarks, 
whether the creature has joined the herd, or is still snoring in its sty 
A single glance determines whether she shall pass a yard, or enter 
it; and if a pig, from indolence or greediness, be loitering on the 
road, the sting of the wasp cannot be sharper or more spiteful than 
the cut she gives it. 

" Besides the little girl who brought up the rear, the herd was 
preceded by a boy of about fourteen, whose duty it was not to let 
the foremost advance too fast, [n the middle of the drove, sur- 
rounded like a shepherd by his flock, slowly stalked the ' Schwein- 
General.' In his left hand lie held a staff, while round his right 
shoulder hung a terrific whip. At the end of a short handle, turn- 
ing upon a swivel, there was a lash about nine feet long, each joint 
being an iron ring, which, decreasing in size, was closely connected 
with its neighbor by a band of hard greasy leather. The pliability, 
the weight, and the force of this iron whip, rendered it an argument 
which the obstinacy even of the pig was unable to resist ; yet, as 
the old man proceeded down the town, he endeavored to speak 
kindly to the herd. 

" As soon as the herd had got out of the town, they began gradu- 
ally to ascend the rocky, barren mountain which appeared towering 
above them, and then the labors of the Schweln- General and his 
staff became greater than ever ; in due time the drove reached the 
ground which was devoted for that day's exercise, the whole moun- 
Uiin being thus taken in regular succession. 

" In this situation do the pigs remain every morning for four hours 
enjoying little else but air and exercise. At about nine or ten 
o'clock they begin their march homeward, and nothing can form a 
greater contrast than their entry does to their exit from their native 
town. 

" Their eager anxiety to get to the dinner trough that awaits them 
is almost ungovernable, and they no sooner reach the first houses of 
the town than away each of them starts towards his home. 

" At half-pa^'- four the same horn is heard again ; the pij^s jncf 



THE SCHWEIX-GENERAL OF GERMANY. 33 

more assemble, ascend the mountains, remain there for four h' urs, 
and in the evening return to their styes. 

" Such is the life of the pigs, not only of Langen-Schwalbach, but 
those of every village throughout a great part of Germany : every 
day of their existence, summer and winter, is spent in the way des- 
cribed." 

in France, swine are kept in herds, and in many districts the feed- 
ing of them in the woods and forests, {le glandage,) under certain 
conditions and restrictions, has been a source of no inconside- 
rable emolument to the forester. Indeed, to such an extent was 
it carried in certain localities, that it became an object of political 
economy. Bat of late years it has much diminished; the progress 
of agriculture is fast sweeping away those immense tracts of wood- 
land country which formerly existed in England and France, and 
with them depart the denizens of the forest, wild or tame. 

Nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions in a 
forest country. By his burrowing after roots and such like, he turns 
up and destroys the larvee of innumerable insects that would other- 
wise injure the trees as well as their fruit. He destroys the slug, 
snail, snake, and adder, and thus not only rids the forest of the?e 
injurious and unpleasant inhabitants, but also makes them subservi- 
ent to his own nourishment, and thus to the benefit of mankind. 
The fruits which he eats, are such as would otherwise rot on the 
ground and be wasted, or yield nutriment to vermin ; and his dig- 
ging for earth-nuts, &c., loosens the soil and benefits the roots of the 
trees. Hence, hogs in forest-land may be regarded as eminently 
beneficial, and it is only the abuse of it which is to be feared. The 
German agriculturist, thaer, does not, however, advocate the forest 
feeding of swine unless they are kept in the woods day and night 
and carefully sheltered ; as he conceives that the bringing them home 
at night heats their blood, and nullifies the good effects^of the day's 
feeding. He likewise considers that, although acorns produce good 
firm flesh, beechmast makes unsound oily fat. 

But if he is a useful animal in this public point of view, how 
much more so is he to individuals % Among the poorer classes ot 
society how often is the pig their chief source of profit. In Ireland is 
this especially the case ; there he is emphatically " the gintleman what 
l^ays the riiit,'' better treated often than the peasant's own children. 
The small cost at which these animals can be reared and flittened, 
and the.r fecundity and wonderful powers of thriving under disad- 
vantages, render them an actual blessing to many a poor cotter, 
who, with his little savings, buys a young and ill-conditioned pig, 
fattens it on all the refuse he can beg or spare, or collect, and selTs 
it at a good profit, or occasionally, perhaps, kills it for the use of his 
family, who thus obtain an ample supply of cheap, nutritious diet. 

VVere it not for this animal, many oi' the laboring poor would 
2* 



34: THE UOG. 

scarcely be able to keep a roof over their heads, therefore, we may 
with justice designate the hog " the poor man's friend." 

With the exception of the rabbit, swine are the most prolific of all 
domesticated animals, and this is another argument in their favoi 
Nor does its value cease with its life ; there is scarcely a portion of 
the pig that is not available for some useful purpose. The flesh 
takes the salt more kindly than that of any other animal, and, 
whether dried as bacon, or salted down as pickled pork, forms an 
excellent and nutritious food, exceedingly valuable for all kinds of 
stores. The fat, or lard is useful for numerous purposes — the house- 
wife, the apothecary, and t!ie perfumer in particular, know how to 
value it ; the head, the feet, and great part of the intestines, all are 
esteemed as delicacies. Brawn, that far-famed domestic prepara- 
tion — which is evidently no recently invented dish, for at the mar- 
riage of Henry IV., in 1403, and of Henry V. in 1419, we find, 
among other records quoted by Strutt, that brawn and a kind of 
hashed pork formed the staple dishes — is made from the hog. The 
bristles, too, are another important item in the matters furnished by 
swine; they are used by brushmakers, and are necessary to the 
shoemaker, and some idea may be formed of the extent to which 
they form an article of use and of commerce, when we state that in 
the year 1828 alone, 1,748,921 lbs. of hog's bristles were imported 
into England, from Russia and Prussia. As these are only taken 
from the top of the hog's back, each hog cannot be supposed to have 
supplied more than 7680, which, reckoning each bristle to weigh two 
grains, will be one pound. Thus, in Russia and Prussia in 1728, 
1,748,921 hogs were killed to supply the consumption of bristles in 
England. The skin is formed into pocket-books, employed in the 
manufacture of saddles, and of various other things, and even the 
ears are eaten in pies. 

It has been too much the custom to regard the hog as a stupid, 
brutal, rapacious, and filthy animal, grovelling and disgusting in all 
his habits; intractable and obstinate in temper. But may not much 
of these evil qualities be attributable to the life he leads'? In a na- 
tive state swine seem by no means destitute of natural affections ; 
they are gregarious, assemble together in defence of each other, herd 
together for warmth, and appear to have feelings in common ; no 
mother is more tender of her voungr than the sow, or more resolute 
in their defence. Besides, neglected as this animal has ever been 
by authors, there are not wanting records of many anecdotes illus- 
trative of their sagacity, tractability, and susceptibility of affection. 
How often among the peasantry, where the hog is, in a manner of 
speaking, one of the family, may this animal be seen following his 
n.i ister from place to place, and grunting his recognition of his pro- 
t ;tors. 

The well-aith3nticated account of the ^ow trained bv Toomer, a 



A SPORTING PIG. 35 

g;amelveepor to Sir Henry Mildinay, testifies to the teachability of 
these animals ; and therefore, as it is our intention to defend them 
from many of the aspersions cast upon them, we will quote it. 

" Toomer actually broke a black sow to find game, and to back 
and stand. Slut was bred in, and was of that sort which maintain 
themselves in the New Forest without regular feeding, except when 
they have young, and then but for a few weeks, and was given, 
when about three months old, to be a breeding sow, by Mr. Thomas 
to Mr. Richai-d Tooner, both at that time keepers of the forest. 
From having no young she was not fed or taken much notice of, and, 
until about "eighteen months old, was seldom observed near the 
lodge, but chanced to be seen one day when Mr. Edward Toomei 
was there. The brothers were concerned together in breaking 
pointers and setters, some of their own breeding, and others sent to 
be broke by different gentlemen ; of the latter, although they would 
stand and back, many were so indifterent that they would neither 
hunt, nor express any satisfaction when birds were killed and put 
before them. The slackness of these dogs first suggested the idea 
that, by the same method, any other animal might be made to stand, 
and do as well as any of those huntless and inactive pointers. At 
this instant the sow passed by, and was remarked as being very 
handsome. R. Toomer threw her a piece or two of oatmeal roll, 
for which she appeared grateful, and approached very near ; from 
that time they were determined to make a sporting pig of her. The 
first step was to give her a name, and that of Slut (given in conse- 
quence of soiling herself in a bog) she acknowledged in the. course 
of the day, and never afterwards forgot. Within a fortnight she 
would find and point partridges or rabbits, and her training was 
much forwarded by the abundance of both which were near the 
lodge ; she daily improved, and in a few weeks would retrieve birds 
that had run as well as the best pointer, nay, her nose was superior 
to the best pointer they ever possessed, and no two men in England 
had better. She hunted principally on the moors and heaths. Slut 
has stood partridges, black-game, pheasants, snipes, and rabbits, in 
the same day, but was never known to point a hare. She was sel- 
dom taken by choice more than a mile or two from the lodge, but 
has frequently joined them when out with their pointers, ar.d con- 
tinued with them several hours. She has sometimes stood a jack- 
snipe when all the pointers had passed by it: she would back the 
dogs when they pointed, but the dogs refused to back her until spoke 

to, their dogs being all trained to make a general halt when the 

111 
word was given, whether any dog pointed or not, so that she has 

been fi-equently standing in the midst of a field of pointers. In 

consequence of the dogs not liking to hunt when she was with them, 

(for they dropped their sterns and showed symptoms of jealousy,^ 

she did not very often accompany them, except for the novelty, o/ 



36 THE nvOQ. 

when she accidentally joined them in the forest. Her pace wa; 
mostly a trot, was seldom known to gallop, except when called to 
go out shooting; she would then come home off the forest at full 
stretch, for she was never shut up but to prevent her being out of 
the sound of the call or whistle when a party of gentlemen had ap- 
pointed to see her out the next day, and which call she obeyed as 
regularly as a dog, and was as much elevated as a dog upon being 
shown the gun. She always expressed great pleasure when game, 
either dead or alive, was placed before her. She has frequently stood 
a single partridge at forty yards' distance, her nose in an exact line, 
and would continue in that position until the game moved : if it took 
wing, she would come up to the place, and put her nose down two 
or three times; but if a bird ran off, she would get up and go to 
the place, and draw slowly after it, and when the bird stopped she 
would stand it as before. The two Mr. Toomers lived about 
seven miles apart, at Rhinefield and Broomey lodges; Slut has 
many times gone by herself from one lodge to the other, as if to 
coui't the beinor taken out shootiuij. She was about five years old 
when her master died, and, at the auction of his pointers, &;c., was 
bought in at ten guineas. Sir Henry Mildmay having expressed a 
wish to have her, she was sent to Dogmersfield Park, where she 
remained some years. She was last in the possession of Colonel 
Sykes, and was then ten years old, and had become fat and slothful, 
but could point game as well as ever. She was not often used, ex- 
cepting to show her to strangers, as the pointers refused to act when 
out with her. When killed she weighed 700 lbs. Her death-war- 
rant v/as signed in consequence of her having been accused of being 
instrumental to the disappearance of sundry missing lambs. 
(Daniel's Rural Sports.) 

Colonel Thornton also had a sow which was regularly taught to 
hunt, quarter the ground, and back the other pointers. 

Some thirty years since, it was mentioned in the public papers, 
that a gentleman had trained swine to run in his carriage, and drove 
four-in-hand through London with these curious steeds. And not 
long since the market-place of St. Albans was completely crowded, 
in consequence of an eccentric old farmer, who resided a few miles 
off, having entered it in a small chaise-cart drawn by four hogs at a 
brisk trot, which pace they kept up a few times round the area of 
the market-place. They were then driven to the wool-pack yard, 
and after being unharnessed were regaled with a trough of beana 
and wash. 

A gentleman present offered 50/. for the whole concern as it stood, 
but his offer was indignantly declined. In about two hours the ani 
mals were reharnessed, and the old farmer drove off with his ex 
traordinary team He stated that he had b(ien six months in trala 
ing them. 



TRACTABILITY OF SWINE. 37 

Nor are these cases without parallel, for Montfaiicon informs us 
that Heiiogabalus, the Roman emperor, trained boars, stags, and 
asses to run in his chariot ; and Pennant states that in Minorca, and 
that part of Murray which lies between the Spey and Elgir, swine 
have been converted into beasts of draught, and that it is by no 
means unusual to see a cow, a sow, and tW(> young horses yoked 
together in a plough, and that the sow is the best drawei of the four 
In Minorca, the ass and hog may be regularly seen working together 
in turning up land. 

Henderson gives another, and a very simple account, illustrative 
of the tractability of swine : — 

"About twenty -five years ago my father farmed very extensively 
in various parts of the kingdom, and upon one of his farms in 
Redkirk, in the parish of Gretna Green, Dumfriesshire, kept at 
times upward of one hundred swine. It so happened that the 
keeper of that flock was either taken unwell or abruptly left his 
service one harvest, when every creature able to work was employed 
in reaping. A brother and I, being the only idleis about the premises, 
the above flock was given in charge to us for a few days, until the pro- 
per keeper was found ; we were then reluctantly obliged to march off 
with our 'hirsel ' early every morning to a clover-field about a mile 
distant, with our dinners, books, and great-coats, &c., packed upon 
our backs : we, however, soon began to think it was a great hard- 
ship for us to be groaning imder our loads while so many stout, able 
ponies were trotting along before us at their ease, and immediately 
set about training one of them to relieve us of our burdens, which 
we accomplished in a few days by occasionally scratching the animal 
and feeding it with bread, &c., out of our hands. It became at last 
so docile as to stand every morning until it received the burden 
girted upon it, and then marched on in the rear, which place it was 
trained to keep, as we had more than once lost om* dinners when it 
was allowed to join the herd ; and in the same matuier we soon 
trained two or three more into carrying the baggage in turns, 
Having been so successful in this training exploit, we then thought 
it would be turning our punishment into pleasure if we could train 
each of us one to ride : this was no sooner thought of than com- 
menced, and although we received many a tumble, yet we soon ac- 
complished our design, and succeeded in breaking in each two or 
three chai'gers. At length our system became so complete, that we 
not only rode to and from the field, but whenever any of the herd, 
were likely to stray, or go into some adjoining field of corn, &;c,, 
each alternately racmnted his charger, and went oft' at full gallop to 
turn back and punish the transgressors. 

" Such as w'ere trained, seldom or never went astray, being always 
about hand, and in readiness to be mounted ; in short, such days as 
my father was from home, i^. was not unusual for a group of servants 



38 TnE HOG, 

to receive aiiuiseitient from my brother and I running set matches 
with our steeds, which were determined in the usual manner, with 
whip and spur ; and in this latter management there was no such 
thing as bolting or tum})ling going on, which occurred frequently 
dnrin<i[ the traiiiina; season. This svstem however, came at length 
to my father's ears, for one or two of the racers happening to die in 
consequence of too severe heats, or loo much weight : when we were 
immediately disbanded from our office, and (our holidays being ex- 
pired) ordered oft' to school again, which we set about with as much 
reluctance as we did the first morning in driving the hundred swine 
to the clover-field." (Henderson's Practical Grazier.) 

The learned pig is another illustration of this same quality. This 
creature had been taught to pick up letters, written upon pieces of 
card, at command, and arrange them into words. It was first 
exhibited in the vicinity of Pail-Mall, in 1789, at 55. each person. 
The price of admission was afterwards reduced to 2^. 6c/., and 
finally to Is. 

The showman stated that he had lost three hogs in the course of 
training. Since then there have been many successors of the " learned 
pig" exhibited at diiferent places, but none equal in talent to the 
original. 

The next thing which we shall claim for our porcine clients is 
sagacity ; nor are we here in want of ibustrative evidences of their 
possession of it. Bu'j in general there is nothing in the life of a hog, 
in his domesticated state at least, which calls for any exercise of 
reasoning powers. His sole business is to eat, drink, sleep, and get 
fat; all his wants are anticipated, and his world is limited to the 
precincts of his sty or of the farm-yard. Yet even in this state of 
luxurious ease, individuals have shown extraordinary intelligence. 

Mr. Craven, relates the f)lli)wu]g anecdote of an American sow: 
*'This animal passed her days in the woods, with a numerous 
litter of pigs, but returning regularly to the house in the evening, 
to share with her family a substantial supper. One of her pigs was, 
however, quietly slipt away to be roasted; in a day or two after- 
wards another ; and then a third. It would appear that this careful 
mother knew the number of her oflTspring, and missed those that 
were taken from her, for after this she came alone to her evening 
meal. This occurring repeatedly, she was watched out of the wood, 
and observed to drive back her pigs from its extremity, grunting, 
with much earnestness, in a manner so intelligible, that they retired 
at Iier command, and waited patiently for her return. 

Surely this must be the result of something very like reasoning 
powers? "A gentleman residing at Caversham bought two pigs 
at Reading market, which were conveyed to his house in a sack, and 
turned into his yard, which lies on the banks of the Hver Thames. 

"The next morning the pigs were missing. A hue and cry wai? 



SAGACITY OF THE HOG. 39 

immecHately raised, and towards the afternoon a person gave infor 
niation that two pigs had been seen swimming across the river at 
nearly i.s broadest part. 

" They were afterwards observed trotting along the Pangbourn 
road, and in one place where the road branches off, putting their 
noses together as if in deep consultation. The result was their safe 
return to the place from which they had originally been conveyed 
to Reading, a distance of nine miles, and by cross roads. 

" The farmer from whom they had been purchased, brought them 
back to their owner, but they took the very first opportunity again 
to escape, recrossing the water like two dogs, thus removing the 
stigma on their race, which proverbially disqualifips them for 'swim, 
ming without cutting their own throats,' and never stopped until 
they found themselves at their first home." 

Here we see difficulties overcome, and a strange element encoun- 
tered, in order to arrive at a far distant spot — the home to which 
the animals were attached. Some recollection of that place or some 
association of ideas must have influenced the proceedings of these 
animals; but to what faculty shall we attribute their swimming the 
river in a direct line with their old master's house, and then finding 
their way so immediately thither'? And liow shall we account for 
their thus acting in concert, if pigs are to be considered as the stupid 
obtuse brutes most persons are in the habit of designating theml 
Such instances of sagacity in the dog and the horse scarcely astonish 
us, because we allow to them a certain degree of reasoning power. 
But is not the great development of it in them as much arising from 
their intercourse, if such we may term it, with man? — from their 
being his companions, educated and ordered by him ? "I have ob- 
served great sagacity in swine," observes Darwin, in his " Zoonomia," 
'* but the short lives we allow them, and their general confinement, 
prevent their improvement, which would otherwise probably equal 
that of the dog." 

"The Naturalist's Library" gives another anecdote of a hog 
which is indicative of no small degree of instinct or intelligence: — 

'•Early in the month, a pig that had been kept several days a 
close prisoner to his sty, was let out for the purpose of its being 
cleaned and his bed replenished. On opening the sty-door, he an- 
ticipated the purpose of his liberation by running to the stable, from 
which he carried several sheaves of straw to his sty, holding theii 
in his mouth by the band. The straw being intended for another 
purpose, it was carried back to the stable ; but the pig, seizing a 
more favorable opportunity, regained it, to the amazement of several 
persons, who were pleased to observe the extraordinary instinct of 
this wonderful pig. 

Swine have also been repeatedly known to attach themselves tc 
individuals, and to other animals, and to manifest great docility 
gentleness, and aficctio^'v. 



40 THE HOG. 

Mr. Henclersnn says, " I have a young sow of a good breed, sc 
dot^le that she will suffer my youngest son, three years of age, to 
climb upon her back and ride her about for half an hour at a time^ 
and more; when she is tired of the fun, she lays herself down, care- 
fully avoiding hurting her young jockey. He often shares his bread 
and meat with her." 

A pig belonging to a baker in Kinghorn, county Fife, became so 
attached to a bull-dog that it would follow and sport with him, and 
follow her master, when he was accompanied by this dog, for five oi 
six miles. The dog was fond of swimming, and the pig imitated 
this propensity ; and if any thing was thrown into the water for the 
dog to fetch out, the pig would follow and dispute the prize with 
him very cleverly and energetically. These two animals invariably 
slept together. 

M. de Dieskau tells us that '' he made a wild boar so tame that 
the aramal, although nearly three years old, would go up stairs to 
his apartment, fawn upon him like a dog, and eat from his hand. 
He also endeavored to bring up one which he caught very young, 
and which formed such an attachment to a young lady in the house 
that he accompanied her wherever she went, and slept upon her bed. 
Once he attacked her maid as she was undressing her mistress, and 
had he been strong enough, would have done her some mortal in 
jury. This lady was the only person in the house for whom the 
creature showed any affection, and yet he was not fed by her. At 
last he fretted himself to death on account of a fox which had been 
taken into the house to be tamed." 

A very amusing account of a "pet pig" is given by a lady, in 
" Chambers' Ediuburgh Journal -y — 

" Being at a loss to know what to do with the refuse of our gar- 
den. Aunt Mary suggested that a pig should be purchased. Accord- 
ingly our little damsel Annette was despatched to a neighboring 
farmer, and, in exchange for a few shillings, she brought home a fat, 
fair, round pig, just six weeks old; and in her haste to display her 
bargain she tumbled >t out in the sitting-room. Nothing daunted 
by the splendor of its new abode, the pig ran up and down, snorting 
and snuf^ng at every chair and table in the room, overturning with 
his snout my aunt's footstool, and trying his teeth on her new straw 
work-basket. After the pig had been duly admired and commented 
on, Annette was desired to install it in its own domicile ; but this 
was more easily said than done ; for being, I suppose, pleased with 
his new quarters, Toby — for so we named him — ran hither and 
thither, now scudding behind a chair or table, now whisking under 
the sofa; at length Annette succeeded in dragging him from liis 
hidir.g-place while he roared out 'Murder!' as plain as a pig could 
speak. Annette was very fond of dumb creatures, as she called 
them ; the pig became her «arling, and for want of a companion o/ 



CLEANLINESS AND SENSITIVENESS OF KOGS. 41 

her own ?pecies, Toby became her constant associate; and fmding 
his visits to the kitchen were winked at, he made use of the privi- 
lege, and would bask himself at full length before the fire. lie 
even ventured occasionally to follow her into the front lobby ; and 
if, as sometimes was the case, she put him into the yard, he would 
kick up such a row at the kitchen door to be let in, thumping on it 
vith his snout, that she was fain to admit him to his old quarteis. 
oby was of a very social disposition, and so fond of Annette, and so 
grateful for her kindness, that he would follow her about everywhere ; 
indeed to ray great surprise, one day I found him standing sentry over 
her while she was putting down the stair carpet, and he seemed to be 
watching her proceedings with a very sagacious air. In process of time 
there came another proof that the course of true love never did run 
smooth. Annette fell into bad health, and returned to her home ; 
the damsel who replaced her, had no taste for the society of pigs; 
so she thumped Toby away from the kitchen door, and many were 
the blows he got from her broom, or whatever missile first came to 
hand. Toby was soon exiled to his sty, much against his inclina 
tion, for he evidently would have preferred bivouacking in the back 
premises. We seldom passed to the garden without throwing him 
some comfort in the shape of a few cabbage-leaves, a handful of 
acorns, or a bunch of turnip-tops. It was truly amusing to see 
Tol)y make his bed. As the straw which was furnished for it was 
rather long and coarse, Toby used to take it bunch by bunch in his 
teeth, and run into a corner, breaking it into small pieces; and 
having accomplished this feat, he proceeded to arrange his couch in 
the most methodical manner. One day, Betty having omJtted to 
give him his dinner, Toby in a great passion, jumped out of his sty. 
and came running to the kitchen door to see what was the reason 
of his being so shamefully neglected, and loud and long were hi? 
remonstrances on the subject. Finding it difficult to get the pool 
animal properly attended to, he was transferred to a neighbor ; and 
we never gave him a successor, as we scarcely expected to find in 
another of his species that gratitude for kindness and affection for 
his friends, which shone so conspicuous in the character of poor 

It may appear absurd to c.aim cleanliness as a swinish virtue ; but 
in point of actual fact the pig is a much more cleanly animal than 
most of his calumniators give him credit for being. He is fond of 
a good cleanly bed ; and often, when this is not provided for him, it 
is curious to see the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for 
himself. "A hog is the cleanliest of all creatures, and will never 
dung or stale in his sty if he can get forth," says a quaint old writer 
of the sixteenth century, and we are very much of his opinion. But 
it is so much the habit to believe that this animal may be kept in 
any state of filth and reglect, that ''pig" and "pig-sty" are terms 



42 THE HOG. 

usually regarded a? synonymous with, all that is dirty and dis» 
gusting. 

Tlis rolling in the mud is alleged against him as a proof of his 
filthy habits ; if so, the same accusation applies to the elephant, the 
rhinoceros, and other of the Pachyderinata. May this not rather bo 
for the purpose of cooling themselves and keeping off flies, as we 
admit it to be in the case of the animals above mentioned ? Savages 
cover themselves with grease in hot climates in order to protect .leir 
skins; may not instinct teach animals to roll themselves in mud for 
a similar purpose 1 

Pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will nestle 
together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle vehemently 
to secure the warmest berth. 

They are eminently sensitive of approaching changes in the 
weather, and may often be observed suddenly to leave the places in 
which they had Ijeen quietly feeding, and run off to their styes at 
full speed, making loud outcries. Wh m storms are overhanging, 
they collect straw in their mouths, and run about as if inviting their 
companions to do the same; and if there is a shed or shelter near 
at hand, may be seen to carry and deposit it there, as if for the pur- 
pose of preparing a bed. Hence has arisen the common Wiltshire 
saying, "Pigs see the wind." Virgil, in enumerating the signs of 
settled fine weather, notices this peculiarity in swine : — 

'' Nor sows uncloan are rahidfiil to provide 
Their nestling beds of mouth collected straw !" 

Foster says — " When hogs shake the stalks of corn, and thereby 
spoil them, it indicates rain ; and when they run squeaking about 
and throw up their heads with a peculiar jerk, windy weather is about 
to commence." 

Darwin observes — " It is a sure sign of a cold wind \vhen pigs 
collect straw in their mouths, and run about crying loudly. They 
would carry it to their beds for warmth, and by their calls invite 
their companions to do the same, and add to the warmth by nume 
rous bedfellows." 

In their domesticated state, swine certainly are very greedy 
animals; eating is the business of their lives ; nor do they appear 
FC very delicate as to the kind or quality of the food which is set 
before them. Although naturally herbiverous animals, they have 
been known to devour carrion with all the voracity of beasts of 
prey, to eat and mangle infants, and even govgQ their appetites with 
their own young. 

Low, howevei, says — "Instances have occurred in which a sow 
has been known to devour her young ; but rarely, if ever, does this 
nappen in a state of nature. It is not unreasonable to believe that 
when an act so revolting does occur, it arises nore from the pain 



INTRACTABILITY OF HOGS. 45 

and irritation produced by the state of confinement, and often filth, 
hi which she is kept, and the disturbances to which she is subjected, 
than from any actual ferocity : for it is well known that a sow is 
always unusually irritable at this period, snapping at all animals 
that approach her. If she is gently treated, properly supplied with 
sustenance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there is little danger 
of this ever happening." 

Roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as well as 
in a domesticated state ; and it is evident that, however omnivorous 
this animal may occasionally appear, its palate is by no means 
insensible to the difference of eatables, for whenever it finds variety 
it will be found to select the best with as much cleverness as other 
quadrupeds. " In the peach-tree orchards of North Amei-ica," says 
Pennant, "where hogs have plenty of delicious food, they have been 
observed to neglect the fruit that has lain a few hours upon the 
ground, ajid patiently wait for a considerable time for a fresh 
windfall." 

According to Linnseus, the hog is more nice in the selection of his 
vegetable diet than any of our other domesticated herbivorous 
animals. This great naturalist states that — 

The Cow eats 276 plants and rejects 218 

'• Goat " 449 " 126 

" Sheep " 387 " 141 

" Horse ** 262 " 212 

but that the Hog only "72 " 171 

They are gifted with an exquisite sense of smell as well as touch, 
residing in the snout, and this enables them to discover roots, acorns, 
earth-nuts, or other delicacies suitable to their palates, which may be 
buried in the ground. 

In some parts of Italy swine are employed in hunting for truffles, 
that grow some inches below the surface of the soil, and form those 
pickles and sauces so highly esteemed by epicures. A pig is driven 
into a field, and there suffered to pursue his own course. Wherever 
he stops and begins to root with his nose, truffles will invariably be 
found. 

I'he last charge which we shall endeavor to refute is that of in- 
tractability. All the offences which swine commit are attributed to 
an innately bad disposition ; whereas they too often arise solely 
from bad management or total neglect. Would horses or cattle be- 
have one iota better, were they treated as pigs too often are ? They 
are legitimate objects for the sport of idle boys, hunted with dogs, 
pelted with stones, often neglected and obliged to find a meal for 
themselves, or wander about halfstarved. Can we wonder that, 
under such circumstances, they should be wild, unmanageable brutes ? 
Look at the. swine in a well-regulated farm-yard — they are as peace- 



ii THE HOG. 

able, and as little disposed to wander or trespass, as any of the other 
animals that it contains. Here, as in many other things, man is but 
too vri'lling to attribute the faults, which are essentially of his own 
causing, to any other than their true source. 

Martin says : — It has been usual to condemn the domestic hog, in 
no very measured terms, as a filthy, stupid brute, at once glutton- 
ous, obstinate, and destitute of intelligence. Against this sweeping 
censure we beg to enter our protest. With regard to the filthines3 
of the hog in a state of confinement, every thing will depend on the 
trouble taken by its keeper. He may allow the sty or the yard to 
be covered v;ith filth of every description, as disgraceful to himself 
as it is injurious to the animals. In this case the hog is the sufferer, 
for naturally it delights in clean straw, luxuriating in it with evident 
pleasure, its twinkling little eyes and low grunt expressing its feel- 
ings of contentment. In fact, the hog, so far from being the filthi- 
est, is one of the cleanliest of our domestic quadrupeds, and is un- 
willing to soil the straw bed of his domicile if any thing like liberty 
be allowed him. It may be here said, is not the hog fond of wal- 
lowing in the mire ? Undoubtedly it is; and so are all the genuine 
packydermata^ as the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the tapir. The 
skin of these animals, thick as it may be, is nevertheless sensitive, 
and a covering of mud is doubtless intended as a protection to the 
skin in the heat of summer, (the time in which the hog chiefly de- 
lights to wallow.) both against the scorching rays of the sun and the 
attacks of myriads of puny but intolerable winged persecutors. No 
animal delights more to have its hide rubbed and scratched than the 
hog — a circumstance which every one practically conversant with 
pigs must have, very frequently noticed. 

With respect to the gluttony of the pig, we acknowledge him to 
be •' a huge feeder ;" but so is the horse or the ox, and indeed every 
animal that has to support a bulky carcass ; and not only so, but 
become fat upon vegetable aliment. To a certain extent, indeed, the 
hog is omnivorous, and may be reared on the refuse of the butchers' 
slaughter-houses ; but such food is not wholesome, nor is it natural; 
for though this animal be omnivorous, it is not essentially carnivo- 
rous. Vegetable ju'oductions, as roots and grain, beech-mast, and 
acorns, constitute the staple of its natural diet; hence, the refuse of 
the dairy farm is more congenial to the health of the anin:;al, to say 
nothing of the quality of its flesh. All animals eat with a keen 
relish — the hog amongst the rest ; besides, his appetite is pampered, 
the object being to make him fat: and certainly a well-fed, plump 
hog is a more comely-looking beast than the gaunt, lean, flat-sided 
animals so generally seen in France and Gerniany. However, if 
the charge of gluttony be proved against the pig fattening in his sty, 
it may be equally proved against the ox fattenmg in his stall. Whet 
old, or when oppressed by fat, the hog, 't must be confessed, is slug 



SAGACITY OF HOGS. 45 

^ish and indolent; when young, however, it is lively and energetic, 
and disposed to indulge in sportive gambols, which, for any thing we 
can see, are quite as amusing as those of lambs. 

Many extraordinary examples of the docility and intelligence oi 
the too much despised hog are on record. Be it remembered, that 
it belongs to that group of which the sagacious elephant forms a 
portion — not that we assert the intellectual equality of the two ani- 
mals ; still, we believe that the hog may be trained to various modes 
of labor, with far less trouble than is generally supposed. It is not, 
however, needed for any such purposes ; consequently, except in a 
few isolated instances, its education is utterly neglected ; all it has 
to do is to eat and sleep, and become fat — its utility to man com- 
mencing at its death, by the knife of the butcher. Yet, even under 
the disadvantages in which the pig is placed — debarred its liberty, 
prevented from exercising its natural instincts, and undisciplined in 
the slijrhtest deo-ree — it manifests both discernment and attachment ; 
it recognizes the voice, and even the footsteps of its feeder, and is 
evidently pleased with his notice. Instances of the attachment of 
pigs to particular persons, and even to other animals, are on record. 
It is not often, however, that porcine familiarity is encouraged. Set- 
ting all prejudice aside, it must be confessed that the animal would 
be more likely to prove troublesome and annoying, than agreeable 
or welcome. We have, however, heard of persons who have petted 
pigs, and know many who would abhor to partake of the flesh of 
one reared upon their own premises — a circumstance not to be won- 
dered at, when we consider that, while alive, the animal not only 
knew them, but greeted their approach, and displayed unmistak- 
able signs of attachment. 

The senses of smell, taste, and hearing, are possessed by the hog 
in great perfection. It is a common saying that pigs can smell the 
coming storm ; certain it is that they are very sensitive of approach- 
ing changes of weather. They become agitated, hurry under shel- 
ter, and during the continuance of the storm utter screams, run 
about with straw in their mouths, or carry it to their sty as if to add 
to their comfort and defence. This peculiarity has been noticed in 
ancient times, as well as in the present. Dr. Darwin, in his Zoono- 
mia^ says, " It is a sure sign of a cold wind when pigs collect straw 
in their mouths, and run about crying loudly. They would carry it 
to their beds for warmth, and by their calls invite their companions 
to do the same, and add to the warmth by numerous bedfellows." 
At all times pigs are fond of huddling together under the straw, but 
especially in chilly or windy weather, from which the young in par- 
ticular appear to suffer much. From this cause, litters of pigs far 
rowed during a severe winter are often greatly thinned, and the sui 
vivors thrive with difficulty. 



46 



THE HOG. 



CHAPTER IV 

The Wild Boar—Description of him—Charactpristics— the Femile and her \ nun"-_HuTitino- tl,. 
Wild Boar— Horner's description of a Boar-hunt— Roman festivals ami Ra^mrs-llie Wil(i 
Boar in England and fecotland-in France— in Germany-Mode of huntimfthe hoar in Ger 
many— Wild Boar park ot the Emperor of Austria— Pres-nt wild breed in Gcrmanv— in 
Hun,i;ary-in the Styrian Alps-in Russia and Sweden~In the East-Habits of ihe Wi-d 
Hog in ladia-Wdd Hog hunting mIndia-The wild l,reed in America-FeartuI conflict with 
a wild herd in Columbia— The Wild Boar the parent stock of all domesticated br^ed«- 
Reseniblances between— Alterations produced by domestication— Resun.piion ol old habits"'or 
again becoamig free from control of man. 

The wild boar {sus scmfa ; var. aper) is generally admitted to be 
the parent of the stock from which all our domesticated breeds and 
varieties have sprung. This animal is generally of a dusky brown 
or iron-gray color, inclining to black, and diversified with black 
spots or streaks. The body is covered with coarse hairs, intermixed 




THE WILD BOAR. 



with a do^vny wool ; these hairs become bristles as they approach 
the neck and shoulders, and are here so long as to form a species of 
mane, which the animal erects when irritated. The head is short, 
the forehead broad and flat, the ears short, rounded at the tips and 
inclined towards the neck, the jaw armed with sharp crooked tuski 



CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WILD BOAR. i7 

which curve slightly upwards, and are capable of inflicting fearful 
wounds, the eye full, neck thick and muscular, the shoulders high, 
the loins broad, the tail stitf, and finished off with a tuft of bristles 
at the tip. the haunch well turned, and the legs strong. A full-grown 
Avild boar in India averages from thirty to forty inches in height at 
the shoulder. The African wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty 
niches high. 

The wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and becomes 
jBercer as he grows older. When he exists in a state of nature, he 
will usually be found in nioist, shady, and well-wooded situations, 
not far remote from streams or water. In India, they are found 
in the thick jungles, in plantations of sugar-canes, rice, or rhur, or 
in the thick patches of high, long grass.* In England, France, 
Germany, Italy, and Spain, their resorts have been in the woods 
and forests. This animal is naturally herbivorous, and appears to 
feed by choice upon plants, fruits, and roots. He will, however, eat 
the worms and larvae which he finds in the ground, also snakes and 
other such reptiles, and the eggs of birds ; and Buff(jn states that 
wild boars have been seen to devour the flesh of dead horses, 
while other authors accuse them of devouring hares, leverets, par- 
tridges, and indeed all kinds of small gamxC, and feeding greedily 
upon carrion ; but this has also been asserted to be only the case 
when they are pressed by hunger. They seldom quit their coverts 
during the day, but prowl about in search of food during twilight 
and the night. Their acute sense of smell enables them to detect 
the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil, and 
they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground in 
i^eareh of them, particularly as they do not, like the common hog, 
root up a little spot here and there, but plough long continuous 
furrows. 

The wild boar, properly so called, is neither a solitary nor a gre- 
garious animal. For the first two or three years the whole herd 



* The wild hog delights in cultivated situations, but will not remain where 
water is not at hand in which he can quench his thirst and wallow at his ease. 
nor will he resort a second season to a spot that does not afford ample cover, 
either of heavy grass or underwood jungle, within a certain distance of him, to 
fly to in case of molestation, and especially to serve as a retreat during the hot 
reason, as otherwise he would find no shelter. The sugar-cane is his gre^at de- 
light, both as affording his favorite food and yielding a highly impervious, ?nd 
unfrequented situation. In these the hogs, and the breeding sows especially, 
commit great devastation, for the latter not only devour but cut the canes for 
a litter, and to thro«^ up a species of hut. which they do with much art, leaving 
a small entrance which they can stop up at pleasure. Sows never quit their 
young pigs without com.pletely shutting them up. This is, however, only re- 
quisite for a few days, after which, the little ones may be seen following their 
mother at a good round pico, though evidently not more than a week or ten 
days old. — Williamson's Orun'al Field Sports. 



43 THE HOG. 

follows the sow, ami all unite in defence against any enemies, calling 
iipon each other with loud cries in case of emergency, and forming 
in reguhir line of battle, the weakest occupying the rear. But when 
arrived at maturity, the animals wander alone, as if in perfect con- 
sciousness of their strength, and appear as if they neither sought 
nor avoided any living creature. They are said to live about thirty 
years ; as they grow old the hair beconies gray, and the tusks begin 
to show syinptoms of decay. Old boars are rarely found associ- 
ating with a herd, but seem to keep apart from the rest, and from 
each other. 

The female produces but one litter in the year, and her litters are 
much smaller in number than those of the domestic pig ; she carries 
her young sixteen or twenty weeks, and generally is f)nly seen with 
the male during the rutting season. She suckles her young for 
several months, and continues to protect them for some time after 
wards ; if attacked then, she will defend herself and them with 
exceeding courage and fierceness. Many sows will often be found 
herding together, each followed by her litter of young ones, and in 
such parties they are exceedingly formidable to man and beast. 
Neither they nor the boar, however, appear to want to attack any 
thing, but only when roused by aggression, or disturbed in their 
retreat, do they turn upon their enemies and manifest their mighty 
strength with which nature has endowed them, otherwise they pur- 
sue their way in a kind of solitary savage majesty. Occasionally 
when two males encounter each other, a fierce and furious battle will 
ensue, especially if this happens during the rutting season, when their 
passions are inflamed. When attacked by dogs, the wild boar at first 
sullenly retreats, turning upon them from time to time, and menacing 
them with his tusks ; biit gradually his ire rises, and at length he 
stands at bay, fights furiously for his life, and tears and rends his 
persecutors. He has even been observed to single out the most 
tormenting of them, and rush savagely upon him. 

Hunting the wild boar has been a flivorite sport, in almost all the 
countries in which this animal was foimd, from the earliest ages. In 
all the ancient Grecian and Roman classical writers, some allusions 
to this animal will be found. Homer, whose vivid portraitures of 
the actions and habits of princes and v/arriors nearly thirty years 
ago, arc known to almost every scholar, again and again refers to 
this savage denizen of the forests, nor can we deny ourselves the 
pleasure o^' extracting the following graphic lines ; — 

" Soon as the morn, new rollM in purple light, 
Pierc'd with her golden shafts the rear of night, 
Ulysses, and his brave maternal race 
The young Antolici, assay the chase; 
I'arnassus, thick perph^x'd with horrid shades, 
With deep-mouthed bounds the hunter troop invades; 



A WILD BOAR HUNT, FROM HOMER. 49 

»Vhat time the sun from ocean's peaceful stream 

Darts o'er the lawn his horizontal beam. 

The pack impatient snuff the tainted gale ; 

The thorny wilds the woodmen fierce assail ; 

And foremost of the Train, his cornel spear 

Ulysses wav'd to rouse the savage war ; 

Deep in the rough recesses of the wood, 

A lofty copse, the growth of ages stood ; 

Nor winter's boreal blast, nor thund'rous show'r, 

Nor solar ray could pierce the shady bower, 

AVith wither'd foliage strew'd, a heavy store! 

The warm pavilion of a dreadful boar. 

Rous'd by the hounds' and hunters' mingling cries,—— 

The savage from his leafy shelter flies, 

AVith fiery glare his sanguine eye-bails shine 

And bristles high impale his horrid chine. 

Young Ithacus advanced, defies the foe, 

Poising his lifted lance in act to throw : 

The savage renders vain the wound decreed, 

And springs impetuous with oi»ponent speed ! 

His tusks oblique he aim'd, the knee to gore ; 

Aslope they glanced, the sinewy fibres tore, 

And bar'd the bone : Ulysses undisniay'd, 

Soon with redoubled force the wound repaid 5 

To the right shoulder-joint the spear applied, 

His further flank with streaming purple dyed ; 

Oa earth he rush'd with agonizing pain. 

With joy, and vast surprise, the applauding train 

Viewed tiis enormous back extended on the plain." 

The wild boar formed part of the sports, pageants, and wild-beast 
shows and fif^hts of the Romans. On the return of Se^e^us from 
Arabia and Egypt, in the tenth year of his reign, sixty wild boars 
fought each other ; and in the year that Gordian the First was fedile, 
he entertained the people of Rome, at his own exper.se, once a 
month ; and " on the sixth month there were two hundred stags, 
thirty wild horses, one hundred wild sheep, twenty elks, one hmidred 
Cyprian bulls, three hundred red Barbary ostriches, thirty wild 
cisses, and one hundred and fifty wild boars," given out to be hunted, 
and became the property of whosoever was fortunate enough to 
catch them. 

During the middle ages, hunting the wild boar formed one of the 
chief amusements of the nobility, in most European countries. The 
dogs provided for this sport were of the slow, heavy kind, anciently 
known by the name of the "' boarhound." None but the largest and 
oldest boars were hunted, and these afforded a very exciting and 
often dangerous sport, lasting for many hours ; for when first the 
animal was "rearfe^," he contented himself with slowly going away, 
just keeping ahead of his pursuers, and apparently caring but little 
for them, and pausing every half mile to rest himself, and give battle 
to his assailants, who are, however, too wary to advance upon him 
until he becomes tired ; then he takes his final stand, and dogs and 
3 



50 THE HOG. 

hunters close around him, and a mortal combat ensues, in which the 

beast eventually falls a victim. 

In treatises on venery and hunting, the technical term fur the boar 
in the first year is "a pig of the sounder ;" in the second, "a hog;" 
in the third, '• a hog steer;" and in the fourth, "a boar." 

Many of the forests in our own country were infested by wild 
boars. The Anglo-Saxons seem, from the rude frescoes and prints 
which are handed down to us, to have hunted this animal on 
foot with no other weapon but the boar-spear, and attended by 
powerful dogs ; and apparently with such success, that at the Nor- 
man conquest William the First thought it necessary to make some 
strict laws for the preservation of this beast of the chase. The 
period for hunting the wild boar among the Anglo-Saxons was in 
September. Howel Dha, the celebrated Welsh lawgiver, gave per- 
mission to his chief huntsman to chase the boar from the middle of 
November until the end* of J3ecember. 

These animals continued to linger in the forests of England and 
Scotland fur several centuries after the Norman conquest, and many 
tracts of land have derived their name from this occurrence, while 
instances of valor in their destruction are recorded in the heraldic 
devices of many a noble family. Fitzstephen, a writer of the 
twelfth century, informs us that wild boars, stags, fallow-deer, and 
bulls, abounded in the vast forests which existed on the northern 
side of London in the time of Henry II. The learned Whittaker 
informs us that this animal roved at liberty over the woods of the 
parish of Manchester for many centuries after the Romans departed 
from that station, and hence the name .of Barlow (ioar- ground) came 
to be assigned to a district in the south-western portion. In Cum- 
berland, the appellation " Wild Boar's Fell," still points out the 
haunts of this animal. The forests of Bernwood in Buckingham- 
shire, of Stainmore in Westmoreland, and those extensive woody 
districts which once existed in Hertfordshire and over the Chiltern 
Hills, were formerly peopled with wild boars, wolves, stags, and 
wild bulls. Many ancient Scottish writers, too, speak of the exist- 
ence of this animal in the woods of Caledonia. In the county of 
Fife there exists a tract of country formerly called Muckross (which 
In the Celtic signifies Boar's Promontory); it is said to have been 
famous as the haunt of wild boars. One part of it was called the 
Boar Hills, which name has since been corrupted into Byro Hills. 
It lies in the vicinity of St. Andrew's, and in the cathedral church 
of that city two enormous boar's tusks were formerly to be seen 
chained to the high altar, in commemoration of an immense brute 
slain by the inhabitants after it had long ravaged the surrounding 
country. 

The precise period at which the -yild boar became exterminated in 
England and Scotland cannot be correctly ascertained. Master John 



THE BOAR S HEAD OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 5] 

C-iilTord and William Tvvety, who lived in the reign of Edward 11., 
composed a book on the craft of hunting, part in verse and part in 
prose, and among the beasts mentioned in those hunted we fnid — 

'• To venery I cast me fyrsfc to go : 
Of wbicbe foure beast? there be ; that is to say, 
The hare, the herte, the ivulfhe ihe wild boor also." 

In the time of Charles I. they had evidently been long extinct, for 
he endeavored to reintroduce them, and was at considerable ex- 
])cnse in order to procure a wild boar and his mate from Germany. 
These are said to have been turned into the New F<)rest, where 
thev propagated greatly. The breed commonly called " forest pigs," 
have many of the characteristics of the wild boar. 

'i'hroiio;*hout the whole of England, the boar's head was formerly 
a standard Christmas dish, served with many ceremonies, and usher- 
ed in by an ancient chorus chanted by all present, the words of which 
are preserved in " Ritson's Ancient Song : — 

" The bore's heed in hand bring I, 
With ' garlands'' gay and rosemary, 
I pray you all synge merily, 
Qui estis in couvivio. 

The bore's heed, I understande, 
Is the " chefe" servyce in the lande 
Loke where ever it be founde, 
Servile cum cantico. 

Be gladde, lordes, bothe more and lasse, 
For this hath ordeyned our stevvarde, 
To chere you all this Christmasse, 
The bore's heed with mustarde.' 

Queen Margaret, wife of James IV. of Scotland, " at the first 
course of her wedding dinner," was served with a " wyld bore's 
head gylt within a fayr platter." 

King Henry II. himself bore this ancient dish into the hall, attend- 
ed with trumpeters and great ceremony, when his son was crowned. 

The boar's head is to the present day placed upon the table of the 
Queen's College, Oxford, on Christmas day, but now it is neatly 
carved in wood instead of being the actual head of the animal. 
This ceremony is said to have originated in a tabender belonging to 
that college having slain a wild boar on Christmas-day, which had 
long infested the neighborhood of Oxford. 

The abbot of St. Gei-main, in Yorkshire, was bound to send 
yearly a present of a boar's head to the hangman, which a monk was 
obliged to carry on his own. This rent was paid yearly, at the feast 
of St. Vincent, the patron of the Benedictines, and on that day the 
execu*:ioner took preced-^ncy '1 the procession of monks. 



52 ' THE HOG. 

France, too, formerly had its trackless forests, thro gli which the 
grisly boar roved in savage grandeur — its boar hunts — its legends 
of sanguinary combats with these monsters. The " wild boar of 
Ardennes" has been the theme of many a lay and romance. But 
civilizafion, the increase of population, and the progress of agricul- 
ture, have here, too, been at work. Still, however, in the large tracts 
of forest land which yet exist and supply the towns with fuel, boars 
;*re still occasionally to be met with, although they cannol be re- 
garded as so wild or ferocious as the ancient breed. At Chantilly, 
"v* ithin forty miles of Paris, the late Prince of Conde, who died in 
1830, kept a pack of hounds expressly for the purpose of hunting 
the boar ; and some English gentlemen who visited the hmiting 
palace in the summer of 1830, were informed by the huntsman that 
a few days previously he had seen no less than fourteen wild hogs 
at one time. But the good old "wild boar hunt," as once existed, 
with all its perils and excitements, is now extinct in France as well 
as in Germany. Where any traces of it remain, they resolve them- 
selves into a battue of a most harmless description, which takes 
place in the parks of the princes or nobles. The drivers beat up 
the woods, the wild s^wine run until they come in contact with a 
fence stretched across the park for the purpose, and about the centre 
of which, at an opening in the wood, a sort of stage is raised, on 
which the sportsmen stand and fire at the swine as they run past. 

Germany being a country boasting forests of immense extent, 
was once the most celebrated of all nations for its wild boars and 
boar-hunts ; and in many parts wild hogs are still abundant, and 
various methods are adopted to destroy them, as well for amuse- 
ment as to turn their carcasses to account, which furnish those finely- 
flavored hams called Westphalian. 

The most simple and effectual way is to find out the haunts of the 
boar, and place a matchlock on rests, well charged, and concealed by 
brambles near it. A rope is attached to the trigger, and carried 
below the rests to the trunk of a tree at some little distance, so as 
to intersect the anijiial's path to the forest. Over this the hog 
inevitably stumbles, and thus discharges the piece, and receives the 
ball in the neck or shoulder. 

The ordinary method of shooting the hog in Germany is as fol- 
lows : — 

The huntsman, or ja(/er, goes out with an ugly but useful animal, 
not unlike a shepherd's dog, but smaller, which is in German lan- 
guage called " a sow-finder." The business of this creature is to 
seek the hog, and so well trained is he that no other animal will turn 
him from that particular scent. On meeting with the object of his 
search he gives tongue incessantly, and with active but cautious irri- 
tation pursues the boar till he is at bay ; then, by continual teasing, 
he manages to turn him sideways to his master, the shoulder afford- 



WILD BOARS IX GERMANY. 53 

ing tlie Lest aim for readily disabling him. In this situation the sa- 
jyacioiis dog contrives to keep him until his master fires; then if the 
wounded boar makes off, the boar-hound (a species of blood-hound j 
is let loose, who pursues him for miles, giving tongue, nor will he 
leave him even if other boars come in the way. 

At the wild boar park of the Emperor of Austria, which is at 
Iliittelsdorf, near Vienna, Mr. Howitt states that he saw "numbers 
of swine of all ages and sizes, from the grisly old boar to the sow 
and her troop of suckling young ones. Here some grim old fellow 
as black as jet, or of a sun-burnt and savage gray, lay basking in 
the deep grass, and at our approach uttered a deep guff, and start- 
ing up, bolted into the wood. Others were lying their length under 
the broad trees, others scampering about with cocked tails. The 
sows and their young seemed most savage and impatient of our 
presence. Some were tame enough to come at the whistle of 
the keeper, and scores ran voraciously when he shook one of the 
wild cornel-trees, which grew plentifully in the forest. This is a tree 
as large as an apple-tree, bearing, in autumn, fruit of about the size 
of cherries, and of a coral red color. The swine are very fond of 
it, and as the trees were shook, and it pattered to the ground, they 
came running on all sides, and stood in the thickets eager for our 
departure, when they rushed ravenously forward and devoured it." 

"After all," he continues, "the wild swine here can present but a 
faint idea of what they were in their ancient wilds. They are all of 
the true breed, and cannot for a moment be confounded with the 
tame variety ; there is the tusked mouth, the thick fore-quarter, the 
narrow hind-quarter, the mane, the coarse bristles, the speed of gait, 
indicative of the wild breed, but they appeared tame and pigmy in 
comparison with the huge savage monsters bred in the obscure 
recesses of deep forests, and unacquainted with the sight of man. 

"Hunters tell us that, notwithstanding the orders of Government 
to exterminate swine in the open forests, on account of the mischief 
they do to cultivated land, thei'c are numbers in the forests in Han 
over and Westphalia, huge, gaunt, and ferocious as ever. These 
will snuff the most distant approach of danger, and with terrific 
noises rush into the densest woods ; or surrounding a solitary and 
unarmed individual, especially a woman or a child, will scour round 
and round them, coming nearer and nearer at every circle, until at 
last, bursting in upon them, they tear them limb from limb and de- 
vour them. Tame swine, which are herded in these forests and be- 
come mixed in breed with the wild, acquire the same blood-thirsty 
propensities, and will, in their herds, surround and devour persons in 
a similar manner." 

The wild breed abound in Upper Austria, on the Styrian Alps, 
and in many parts of Hungary. In the latter country, a recent 
author speaking of them, says : " These animals have lost some little 



52 ' THE HOG. 

France, too, formerly had its trackless forests, thro gh which the 
grisly boar roved in savage grandeur — its boar hunts — its legends 
of sanguinary combats with these monsters. The " wild boar of 
Ardennes" has been the theme of many a lay and romance. But 
civiiizafion, the increase of population, and the progress of agricul- 
ture, have here, too, been at work. Still, however, in the large tracts 
of forest land which yet exist and supply the towns with fuel, boars 
;ire still occasionally to be met with, although they cannot be re- 
garded as so wild or ferocious as the ancient breed. At Chantilly, 
w ithin forty miles of Paris, the late Prince of Conde, who died in 
1830, kept a pack of hounds expressly for the purpose of hunting 
the boar ; and some English gentlemen who visited the hunting 
palace in the summer of 1830, were informed by the huntsman that 
a few days previously he had seen no less than fourteen wild hogs 
at one time. But the good old "wild boar hunt," as once existed, 
with all its perils and excitements, is now extinct in France as well 
as in Germany. Where any traces of it remain, they resolve them- 
selves into a battue of a most harmless description, which takes 
place in the parks of the princes or nobles. The drivers beat up 
the woods, the wild s^wine run until they come in contact with a 
fence stretched across the park for the purpose, and about the centre 
of which, at an opening in the wood, a sort of stage is raised, on 
which the sportsmen stand and fire at the swine as they run past. 

Germany being a country boasting forests of immense extent, 
was once the most celebrated of all nations for its wild boars and 
boar-hunts ; and in many parts wild hogs are still abundant, and 
various methods are adopted to destroy them, as well for amuse- 
ment as to turn their carcasses to account, which furnish those finely- 
flavored hams called Westphalian. 

The most simple and efilectual way is to find out the haunts of the 
boar, and place a matchlock on rests, well charged, and concealed by 
brambles near it. A rope is attached to the trigger, and carried 
bel<:>w the rests to the trunk of a tree at some little distance, so as 
to intersect the animal's path to the forest. Over this the hog 
inevitably stumbles, and thus discharges the piece, and receives the 
ball in the neck or shoulder. 

The ordinary method of shooting the hog in Germany is as fol- 
lows : — 

The huntsman, or jager, goes out with an ugly but useful animal, 
not unlike a shepherd's dog, but smaller, which is in German lan- 
guage called " a sow-finder." The business of this creature is to 
seek the hog, and so well trained is he that no other animal will turn 
him from that particular scent. On meeting with the object of his 
search he gives tongue incessantly, and with active but cautious irri- 
tation pursues the boar till he is at bay ; then, by continual teasing, 
he manages to turn him sideways to his master, the shoulder afford- 



WILD BOARS IX GERMANY. 53 

ing the best aim for readily disabling him. In this situation the sa- 
gacious dog contrives to keep hun until his master fires; then if the 
wounded boar makes off, the hoar-liound (a species of blood-hound j 
is let loose, who pursues him for miles, giving tongue, nor will he 
leave him even if other boars come in the way. 

At the wild boar park of the Emperor of Austria, which is at 
Hiittelsdorf, near Vienna, Mr. Hovvitt states that he saw " numbers 
of swine of all ages and sizes, from the grisly old boar to the sow 
and her troop of suckling young ones. Here some grim old fellow 
as black as jet, or of a sun-burnt and savage gray, lay basking in 
the deep grass, and at our approach uttered a deep guff, and start- 
ing up, bolted into the wood. Others were lying their length under 
the broad trees, others scampering about with cocked tails. The 
sows and their young seemed most savage and impatient of our 
presence. Some were tame enough to come at the whistle of 
the keeper, and scores ran voraciously when he shook one of the 
wild cornel-trees, which grew plentifully in the forest. This is a tree 
as large as an apple-tree, bearing, in autumn, fruit of about the size 
of cherries, and of a coral red color. The swine are very fond of 
it, and as the trees were shook, and it pattered to the ground, they 
came running on all sides, and stood in the thickets eager for our 
departure, when they rushed ravenously forward and devoured it." 

"After all," he continues, "the wild swine here can present but a 
faint idea of what they were in their ancient wilds. They are all of 
the true breed, and cannot for a moment be confounded with the 
tame variety ; there is the tusked mouth, the thick fore-quarter, the 
narrovv^ hind-quarter, the mane, the coarse bristles, the speed of gait, 
indicative of the wild breed, but they appeared tame and pigmy in 
comparison with the huge savage monsters bred in the obscure 
recesses of deep forests, and unacquainted with the sight of man. 

"Hunters tell us that, notwithstanding the orders of Government 
to exterminate swine in the open forests, on account of the mischief 
they do to cultivated land, there are numbers in the forests in Han 
over and Westphalia, huge, gaunt, and ferocious as ever. These 
will snufl' the most distant approach of danger, and with terrific 
noises rush Into the densest woods ; or surrounding a solitary and 
unarmed individual, especially a woman or a child, will scour round 
and rovmd them, coming nearer and nearer at every circle, until at 
last, l)ursting in upon them, they tear them limb from limb and de- 
vour them. Tame swine, which are herded in these forests and be- 
come mixed in breed wn'th the wild, acquire the same blood-thirsty 
propensities, and will, in their herds, surround and devour persons in 
a similar manner." 

The wild breed abound in Upper Austria, on the Styrlan Alps, 
and in many parts of Hungary. In the latter country, a recent 
author speaking of them, says : " These aninuals have lost some little 



56 THE HOG. 

very common to see a plough at work at the very edge v f the canea 
where the villagers are beating for hogs; and as the bdlocks em- 
ployed are extremely skittish and wild, it often happens that they 
take fright and run off with the plough, which frequently is broken 
to pieces. The ploughman, alai-med equally with his cattle, also 
takes to flight, as do ail the peasants who may see the bristling ani- 
mal ffiilloDins; frona his haunt." 

Mr. Johnson describes another scene eminently chai-isteristic of 
the desperate fierceness and strength of the, wild hog. He was one 
of a party of eight persons, on a sporting excursion near Patna on 
the banks of the Soane. Keturning one morning from shooting, 
they met with a very large boar, which they did not fire at or mo- 
lest, as, although several of the party were fond of hunting, they 
had no spears with them. The next morning they all sallied forth 
in search of him, and just as they had arrived at the spot where 
they had seen him the day before, they discovered him at some dis 
tance galloping ofl" towards. a grass jungle on the banks of the river 
They pressed their horses as fast as possible, and were nearly up 
with him when he disappeared all at once. 

The horses were then nearly at their full speed, and four of them 
could not be pulled up in time to prevent their going into a deep 
branch of the river, the banks of which were at least fourteen or 
fifteen feet high. Happily, there was no water in, or any thing but 
fine sand, and no person was hurt. One of the horses, that was ex- 
ceedingly vicious, got loose, attacked the others, and obliged them 
and all the rest, to recede. 

A few days afterwards they went again, early in the morning, in 
pursuit of the same hog, and found him farther off from the grass 
jungle, in a rhur-field, from which with much difficulty they drove 
him into a p*lain, where he stood at bay challenging the whole party, 
and boldly charging every horse that came within fifty yards of him, 
grunting loudly as he advanced. 

" The horse I rode," says Mr Johnston, *' would not go near him, 
and when I was at considerable distance off, he charged another 
horse with such ferocity that mine reared and plunged in so violent 
a manner as to throw me oft'. Two or three others were dismounted 
at nearly the same time ; and though there were many horses pre- 
sent that had been long accustomed to the sport, not one of them 
would stand his charges. He fairly drove the whole party off the 
field, and gently trotted on to the grass jungle, foaming and grind- 
ing his tusks." 

In Morocco the wnld boar is the most common and prolific of 
all the ferocious animals found there; the sow produces several 
large litters in the year; and were it uot that the young form the 
favorite food of the lion, the country wo^ild be overrun ^vith these 
animals. 



ALTER ATIOXS PRODUDED BY DOMESTICATION". 57 

In the woods of South America there are abundance of \.'ild 
Bwine, possessing all tiie forocity of the boar. The following fear- 
ful scene occurred in Columbia. A party of six hunters had gone 
out on a sporting expedition. They fell in with a herd of swine, 
upon which four of them, less experienced than the others, immedi- 
ately fired, and the swine advanced fiercely to attack them. The 
four young men, intimidated, took to flight without warning their 
companions, or considering the danger to which they were exposed. 
They climbed up into some trees, but the other two were quickly 
surrounded by the swine. They made a long and desperate defence 
M'ith their lances, but were at length dragged down. One of thera 
was torn to pieces, and the other dreadfully lacerated, and left for 
dead by the swine, who now watched the four fugitives in the trees 
until sunset. Then, probably yielding to the calls of nature, they 
retired. The surviving hunters then came down and assisted their 
woimded companion into the canoe, and carried off the remains of 
the unfortunate man who had fallen in this horrible encounter. (Coch- 
rane's Columbia^ vol. i.) 

We have entered thus much at length into the history of the wild 
boar, because no one can for a moment doubt that it is the parent 
stock from which the domesticated breeds of swine originally sprung ; 
the well-known fact that all kinds breed with the boar, is in itself a 
sufficient testimony ; but to this we can add that the period of ges- 
tation is the same in the wild and tame sow ; the anatomical 
structure is identical ; the general form bears the same characters; 
and the habits, so far as they are not altered by domestication, re- 
main the same. 

Where individuals of the pure, wild race, have been caught young 
and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic pig, their fierce- 
ness has disappeared, they have become more social and less noctural 
in their habits, lost their activity, and lived more to eat. In the course 
of one or two generations even the form undergoes certain modifi- 
cations ; the body becomes larger and heavier ; the legs shorter and 
less adapted for exercise; the formidable tusks of the boar, being no 
longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear ; the shape of the 
head and neck alters; and in character as well as in form, the ani- 
mal adapts itself to its position. Nor does it appear that a return 
to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance ; for, 
in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man, and 
bred in the woods and wildernesses, there does not appear to be a 
single instance recorded by any naturalist in ^hich they have re- 
sumed the habits and form of the wild boar. They become fierce, 
wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon roots and fruits; but they are 
still merely degenerated swine, and they still associate together in 
herds, nor " walk the glade in savage solitary grandeur" like tlneir 
grim ancestors. 



58 THE HOG. 

We shall now proceed to notice some of the accounts given of 
the swine found in various pai'ts of the world, previous to entering 
u| on a consideration of the breeds peculiar to our own country. 



CHAPTER V. 

Swine in America — In large towns — Original breed — Improved breed — Swine in Canada— In 
Ohio — In Mexico— Hebrides— In Columbia— In the South Sea Islands — Swine in Asia — in Chi- 
na and Japan — Ceylon — Hindostan — Turkey and Arabia — Swine in Africa — Guinea — New 
Holland — Caffraria — Swine in Europe— In Malta — In Italy — In Germany — In Hungary — In 
Kussia — In Sweden — In France — Swine indigenous to the Channel Islands — In Jersey — In 
Guernsey — In Sark — In Alderney — The Isle of Man — In the Hebrides — In the Shetland Islea 
— In the Orkneys. 

AMERICA. 

Throughout the whole of this quarter of the globe swine appear 
to abound. They are not, however, indigenous, but were doubtless 
originally carried^ thither by the early English settlers, and the breed 
thus introduced still may be distinguished by the traces they retain 
of their parent stock ; but France, Spain, and, during the slave-trade, 
Africa, have also combined to supply America with varieties of this 
animal, so useful to the settler in the wilds and woods, and so much 
esteemed throughout the whole of the country, as furnishing a 
valuable article of food. 

" It appears that the American zoologists describe no fewer than 
six species of the hog, some of them so entirely distinct in their 
general habits and appearance as to prevent their ever breeding or 
even associating together. Five of these species need only be re- 
garded as objects of curiosity ; the sixth is the common wild hog of 
the eastern continent, which we will describe, in order to illustrate 
the difference between a good and a bad animal of the same variety; 
they have long-peaked snouts, coarse heads, thin chests, narrow 
shoulders, sharp backs, slab sides, meagre, diminutive hams, big 
legs, clumped feet, the hide of a rhinoceros, the hair and bristles of 
a porcupine, and as thick and shaggy as a bear's; they have no 
capacity for digesting and concocting their food in the stomach for 
nourishment; there is nothing but offal, bones, rind, bristles, and 
hair, with a narrow streak of gristle underneath, and a still narrower 
line of lean, as tough and as rank as white leather — their snouts 
against every man, and every man's hand against them.- No rea- 
sonable fence can stop them, but, ever restive and uneasy, they rove 



SWINE IN AMEKIOA. . 59 

about seeking for plunder ; swilling, grunting, rooting, pawing, al. 
ways in mischief and always destroying. The more a man posses- 
es of such stock the worse he is off; and he had far better sell his 
produce at any price, than to put it into such totally worthless crea- 
tures." — A. B. Allen. 

Stuart says — " Hogs are universal in this part of the world, and 
are well and frequently fed. At first they are kept in the woods, 
and nurtured on chestnuts and apples ; before being killed, they 
have good rations of Indian corn or barley-meal, and in many cases 
are likewise well supplied with steamed food. In South Carolina 
the climate is so mild that they are allowed to wander about the 
woods during the whole year, feeding on the nuts, acorns, &c., which 
are there so abundant, and occasionally eating the fallen fruit they 
meet with. They are very useful in destroying snakes." — Stuart's 
North America. 

In large towns, too, they are apparently as much at home and as 
common as in the forests, pacing the streets, instead of the glades, 
and feeding upon the offal and filth rejected by man, instead of the 
fresh and wholesome fruits supplied by the hand of nature. One 
of our countrymen gives an amusing graphic account of the swinish 
multitude, in some of the large towns through which he passed. 

" We are going to cross here. Take care of the pigs. Two 
portly sows r.re trotting up behind this carriage, and a select party 
of halfa-dozen gentlemen hogs have just now turned the corner. 
Here is a solitary swine, lounging homewards by himself ; he has 
only one ear, having parted with the other to vagrant dogs in the 
course of his city rambles ; but he gets on very well without it, 
and leads a roving, gentlemanly, vagabond kind of a life, somewhat 
answering to that of our clubmen at home. He leaves his lodgings 
every morning at a certain hour, throws himself upon the town, gets 
through his day in some manner quite satisfactory to himself, and 
regularly appears at the door of his own house again at night, like 
the mysterious master of Gil Bias ; he is a free-and-easy, careless, 
indifferent kind of pig, having a very large acquaintance among 
other pigs of the same character, whom he rather knows by sight 
than conversation, as he seldom troubles himself to stop and ex- 
change civilities, but goes grunting down the kennel, turniv^g up the 
news and small-talk of the city, in the shape of cabbage-stalks and 
offal, and bearing no tails but his own, which is a very short one, 
for his old enemies the dogs have been at that too, and have left 
him hardly enough to swear by ; he is in every respect a republi- 
can pig, going wherever he pleases, and mingling with the best 
society, on an equal, if not superior footing, for every one makes 
way when he appears, and the haughtiest give him the wall if he 
prefer it ; he is a great philosopher, and seldom, moved unless by 
the dogs before-mentioned ; sometimes, indeed, you may see hia 



60 THE HCG. 

small eye twinkling on a slaughtered friend, whose carcass gar 
nishes a buU'hcr''s door-post, but he grunts out " vSueh is life; all 
flesh is pork !" buries his nose in the mire again, and waddles 
down the gutter, comforting himself with the reflection that there 
is one snout the less to anticipate stray cabbage-stalks, at any rate. 

" They are the city scavengers, these pigs, ugly brutes they are ; 
having for the most part scanty brown backs, like the lids of old 
horse-hair trunks, spotted with unwholesome black blotches ; they 
Iiave long, gaunt legs too, and such peaked snouts that if one of them 
could be persuaded to sit fov his profile, nobody would recognize it 
for a pig's likeness ; they are never attended upon, or fed, or driven, 
or caught, but are thrown upon their own resources in early life, 
and become preternaturally knowing in consequence; every pig 
knows where he lives much better than any body could tell him. 
At this hour, just as evening is closing in, you will see them roam- 
ing towards bed by scores, eating their way to the last. Occasion- 
ally some youth among them who has overeaten himself, or has 
been worried by dogs, trots shrinkingly homeward, like a prodigal 
son ; but this is a rare case; perfect self-possession and self-reliance, 
and immovable composure, being their foremost attributes. (Dick- 
ens' American Notes.) 

And Mrs. Trollope piteously exclaims — "I am sure 1 should have 
liked Cincinnati nnich better if the people had not dealt so very 
largely in hogs! The immense quantity of business done in this 
line wouli hardly be believed by those who had not witnessed it. 
i never saw a newspaper without remarking such advertisements as 
the following: " VVanted immediately, 4000 fat hogs;" "For sale, 
2000 baiTels of prime pork." But the annoyance came nearer 
than this. If I determined upon a walk up Main Street, the chances 
were five hundred to one against my reaching the shady side with- 
out brushing by a snout or two, fresh dripping from the kennel. 
When we had screwed up our courage to the enterprise of mount- 
ing a certain noble-looking sugar-loaf hill, that promised pure air 
and a fine view, we found the brook we had to cross at its foot, red 
with the blood from a pig slaughter-house ; while our noses, instead 
of meeting " the thyme that loves the green hill's breast," were 
greeted by odors that I will not describe, and which I heartily hope 
ray readers cannot imagine; our feet, that on leaving the city had 
expected to press the flowery sod, literally got entangled in pigs' 
tails and jaw-bones ; and thus the prettiest walk in the neighborhood 
•was interdicted for ever." 

The common breed may for the most part be described as large, 
rough, long-nosed, big-boned, thin-backed, slab-sided, long-legged, 
ravenous, ugly animals. But latterly great improvements have been 
made in it by judicious crossing with the Chinese and Berkshire pigs, 
by crossing these two breeds with each other, and by careful breetl 
mg from these two stocks without intermixture. 



SWINE IN AMERICA. 61 

Mr. Bement of Albany, -who has devoted grcj.t attention to the 
rearing and breeding of swine, speaks in the highest terms of praise 
of the cross between the pure Chinese breed and the original breed 
of the country, or, "■ laitd-skads,'''' as he termed them. He says that 
the Chinese breed was first introduced about twenty years ago, but 
that from their size, seldom attaining more than 250 lbs., and from 
their delicacy, they were not adapted for "a farmer's hog." But 
with the just-mentioned cross they become all that could be wished. 
He thus describes the " improved China hogs :" — " In color they are 
various — white, black and white, spotted, and gray and white; they 
are longer in the body than the pure Chinese breed ; small in the 
head and legs ; broad in the back ; round in the body ; the ham.s 
well let down ; skin thin ; and flesh delicate and finely flavored. 
They are easy keepers, small consumers, quiet in disposition, not 
given to roam or commit depredations ; ancl when in condition may 
be maintained so upon grass only." — The Cultivafor^ vol. ii. 

The best Berkshire breeds, as imported into America, vary some- 
what in size and appearance ; that from which most of the present 
stock have been raised was taken to America in 1832. This breed 
has spread rapidly over the country, and fetches a high prife from 
its peculiar aptitude to fatten. Its prevailing characteristics are — a 
fine head, a dished face, rather upright ears, close shoulders and hams, 
and a shcrt body ; animals of this kind mature very rapidly, and 
produce most delicate meat. 

There are now various improved breeds, known for the most part 
under the names of the improvers, or of the localities in which they 
are found, arising from crosses of the original American hog with 
the above-mentioned breeds, or others which may have been im- 
ported from England and other countries. The establishment of 
agricultural societies and cattle-shows, has contributed in the New as 
well as in the Old World to direct the attention of farmers and 
breeders to all kinds of domesticated animals, and the advantages 
which have been obtained in swine alone are sufficiently great to 
prove incentives to increased care and study on the all-important 
principles of breeding. 

Head, in his journey from Halifax to Upper Canada, again and 
again alludes to the fine pigs he saw, and the delicious pork wn'th 
■which he was regaled by the settlers he met with in various parts, 
He says that bears are very fond of pork, for they often get into the 
farm-yards and carry off a squeaking, struggling victim to regale 
themselves upon 

INDIANA. 

In Indiana the breed of swine furnishes the principal supply for 
food and exportation; great quantities of pork being sent to New 
Orleans, Great numbers of swine roam in the woods of Indiana, far 



62 THE HOG. 

fron^ all human dwellings, where they grow very fat upon the abun- 
dance of oak and beech mast. In some parts where great numbers 
of swine are allowed to run almost wild, a triangular yoke is fixed 
round their necks to prevent them from breaking through fences. 
— Weld's Travels in North America. They are of a reddish-brown 
color, with round black spots ; there are some quite wild, which any 
body is at liberty to shool. These animals are never housed, even 
in the vicinity of Harmony. In the depth of winter the young ones 
often perish with cold, or are devoured by the mothers ; and then 
dead swine will be seen lying about in all directions, some partly 
devoured by others. The negligence and want of feeling with which 
these animals are treated is very great, and consequently they can 
never be expected to prosper, or yield those advantages which might 
be derived from them under proper treatment. 



OHIO. 

Professor Silliman, in his account of Ohio, says that large num- 
oers of hogs pass the winter in the woods quite independent of the 
assistance of man, subsisting on nuts and acorns. Single individuals 
of these are occasionally destroyed by bears and wolves, but a herd 
of ten or twenty hogs are more than a match for a wolf or panther. 
Indeed an old hunter once saw a panther spring from a tree into a 
drove of wood hogs, and scarcely had he touched the ground than 
the larger ones fell upon him with their tusks and the weight of their 
bodies, and killed and tore him in pieces in a few moments. Arcana 
of Science^ 1828. 

MEXICO. 

In Mexico fine breeds of pigs are kept by many persons of wealth 
as an article of trade as well as of consumption, and the greatest 
possible care and attention are paid to the cleanliness and comfort of 
these animals ; nay, more, the Mexican pigs may be said to possess 
the luxuries of life, for two Indian lads are kept to sing the grunting 
herd to sleep. These boys are chosen for the strength of their lungs 
and their taste and judgment in deliirhtir.g the ears and lulling the 
senses of the porcine harmonists, and they take it by turns to chant 
throughout the whole day ; nor does their performance appear to be 
unappreciated by their strange audience, but rather to afford exceed- 
uig delight and gratification. 

HEBRIDES. 

The New Hebride'-!, the Marquesas, the Friendly and Society 
[slanJs, and New Guinea, abound with a breed of swine closeU 
resembling the Chinese, and these being almost the only domestic 



SWINE IN COLUMBIA. 63 

animals which the natives of these islands posses^;, they accoiclingiy 
receive great care and attention. This race is small, the belly 
hanging, the legs short, the tail almost imperceptible, and the color 
gray. Its flesh is very white and delicate. 

COLUMBIA. 

In the woods of Columbia there are numbers of swine, but for 
tac most part wild ; and the flesh of these wild ones is far superior 
to that of the few that are domesticated, as that of the latter, from 
the animals being often fed on stale fish and all kinds of abomina- 
tions, acquires a rancid and unpleasant flavor. Some of the settlers 
chiefly live by the sale of the flesh of wild swine, which they obtain 
by hunting, and then cure or dry it. 

Experienced hunters will kill their fourteen or fifteen swine a-day, 
and a well-trained dog will often destroy two or three of these ani- 
mals a-day by himself. The mode of proceeding is for the dog to 
keep the hog at bay while the hunter creeps up, and watching his 
opportunity, throws his lance with such vigor as to pin the animal 
to the ground. This done, he rushes upon him, seizes the lance 
firmly with one hand, and with the other dispatches the game with 
his knife. 

In Paraguay and Brazil, swine are likewise abundant, and for the 
most part wild. 

The Falkland Islands were stocked with swine by the French and 
Spaniards, but little, if any, trace of the original breeds can now be 
discovered in the fierce, bristly; tusked animals now found there, 
some of the older ones of which rival the grisly boar in appearance 
and wildness. 

SOUTH-SEA ISLANDS. 

The South-Sea Islands, on their discovery by Europeans, were 
found to be well stocked with a small, black, short-legged hog ; the 
traditionary belief of the natives was, that these animals were as 
anciently descended as themselves. The hog, in fact, is in these 
islands the principal quadruped, and is of all others the most care- 
fully cultivated. The bread-fruit tree, either in the form of a sour 
paste or in its natural cctndition, constitutes its favorite food, and 
its additional choice of yams, eddoes, and other nutritive vegetables, 
renders its flesh most juicy and delicious; its fat, though rich, being 
at the same time (so says Foster) not less delicate and agreeable 
than the finest butter. Before our missionary labors had proved so 
successful in these once benighted regions, by substituting the mild 
spirit of Christianity for the sanguinary forms of a delusive and 
degrading worship, the Otaheitans and other South-Sea Islanders 



64 THE HOG. 

were iii the habit of presenting roasted pigs nt the morals, as the 
->iost sa 'ovy and acceptable offering to their deities which they could 

toUStOW. 

ASIA. 

Throiighciit the greater part of Asia, swine are to be found. The 
extensive and magnificent forests which cover much of the Birmese 
Empire, Siam, Cochin China, and other kingdoms of the south-east, 
abound with hogs, as well as other pachydermatous animals. 

Here are found the celebrated Siamese or Chinese breed, so much 
esteemed throughout all parts of the world to which they have been 
exported : distinguished for their small size, fine head and snoutj 
compact deep carcass, large hams and shoulders, short limbs, delicate 
feet, fine hair and skin, aptitude to fatten and grow, and the sweet, 
delicate meat they yield. 

CHINA AND JAPAN. 

The Chinese and Japanese are great pig-breeders, and make the 
art of crossing, breeding, and rearing swine, which furnishes them 
with their principal animal food, an object of peculiar attention and 
study. Merchants who have resided for some time in China, and 
even travellers who have merely been able to bestow a superficial 
glance on matters, speak of the great care bestowed on this point; 
but no author appears to have given any details as to the course of 
practice adopted. Perhaps from the naturally jealous and uncom 
miinicative disposition of the Chinese, they have been unable tc 
ac|j^uire any ; and, perhaps, few have thought it worth while to trou- 
ble themselves about so degraded an animal as the hocr. Howevei 
this may be, it is much to be regretted that the inforrnation is so 
very scanty, for many valuable hints might probably have been thus 
obtained. 

Tradescent Lay, the naturalist in Beechy's expedition, in his inte- 
resting work on China, thus amusingly speaks of the natives and 
their swine: — ''There is a striking analogy between these two, A 
Chinese admires a round face and the smooth curvatures of a hin- 
belly, and where opportunity serves, cultivates these additions to 
personal beauty in himself. The Chinese pig is fashioned on the 
same model. At an early period the back becomes convex, ihe 
belly protuberant, and the visage shows a remarkable disposition to 
rotundity. Nor is the resemblance merely personal ; m the moral 
chivracter there is an amusing similitude, contrariety and obstinacy 
being the prevailing characteristics of both men and brutes." 

The same author informs us that swine are rarely driven or made 
U) walk in China, but conveyed fj'om place to place in a species of 



SWINE IN CEYLON AND HINDOSTAN. 65 

cradle suspended upon a pole, carried by two men. But he says, 
"the difficulty is to get the animal into this conveyance, and this is 
accomplished by the cradle being placed in front ot* the pig, and 
the owner then vigorously pulling at 'porky's tail,' and in the spirit 
of opposition the animal darts into the place they have prepared 
for him. At the journey's end, the bearers dislodge him by spitting 
m his face." 

Mr. Lay states that " pork is very plentiful in China, but never 
greeable to the European eye, from its shining, flabby appearance; 
it does not taste either like our pork, and is only tolerable when 
cut into thin slices and fi'ied in soy to correct the grossness of its 
natural juices. The natives cut it in long slices or rashers, and 
dry it in the sun, and thus prepared it is not unpleasant in flavor, 
although it is then by no means easy to distinguish it from dogs' or 
cats' flesh similarly prepared." 

CEYLON. 

In speaking of Ceylon, and its neighborhood, an intelligent travel- 
ler says: — "The swine here are a long-legged, ugly breed, allowed 
to run wild and pick up whatever food they can get. 1 never saw, 
at any native cottage or farm, a pig penned up or put to fatten, and 
yet the natives are very fond of hog's flesh, and never hold any 
feast or festival without this meat constituting the chief and most 
approved dishes." 

HINDOSTAN. 

The existence of a breed of swine in Hindostan and the Birmese 
empire is mentioned by several travellers, but scarcely one gives 
any account of them. It would seem, however, that they are iden- 
tical with the Siamese breed. Hogs are also enumerated as among 
the wild beasts of Central India. Some of the Hindoo tribes use 
hog's blood for all the purposes to which other natipns apply holy 
water ; but pork is not eaten, excepting by Europeans and the lowest 
caste of Plindoos. In the Eastern Archipelago and the Moluccas, a 
breed of wild swine exists bearing great resemblance to the Chinese, 
but rather longer in the legs and lighter in the body, and aff()rding 
delicious meat. 

TURKEY AND Ar.ABIA. 

In Turkey, Syria, Persia, iVrabia, and the north-eastern parts of 
Asia, comparatively few pigs are found, and these are of an iron- 
gray, black, and occasionally brown hue ; short-legged, small, round 
in the body, very apt to fatten, and attaining the weight of from 
350 to 400 lbs. And there are two ways of accounting for this, 



66 THE HOG. 

viz.; the prevalence of the Mohammedan religion, and the sandj^ 
open nature of the country ; for it is chiefly in well-wooded if not 
cultivated districts that we find swine, their nature and habits alike 
unfitting them for dry sandy deserts. 

AFRICA. 

In this quarter of the globe again, we meet with but few smIuc, 
until we approach the south-eastern parts, and for the same reasons 
which we have just given. In Abyssinia they are to be found, but 
they are not held in much estimation. They have been imported 
into New Holland, Caffraria, and the Cnpe of Good Hope, but are 
not kept to any extent, on account of the difficulty of feeding them. 
In most of these places pork is chiefly used as food for the lower 
classes, and but little care or attention is bestowed upon the ani- 
mals ; and the breeds greatly resemble the Chinese variety, but are 
somewhat less, being short-legged, round-bodied animals, of a black 
or dark brown color, the bristles few and almost as fine as hairs, 
and the tail terminated by a tuft. 

The Coast of Guinea used to possess a breed of swine which have 
been exported thence as an article of commerce, especially to the 
new settlements in America and to some parts of the East Indies, 
and were held in high estimation at that time. But the cessa- 
tion of the intercourse induced by the slave-trade, and the discovery 
of more valuable breeds, have rendered these almost forgotten. 
These animals were large in size, square in form, of a reddish color, 
the body covered with short, bristly hair, and smoother and more 
shiny than almost any other variety of the porcine race ; the tail 
very long, and the ears long, narrow, and terminating in a point. 
This variety is also found in Brazil. 

EUROPE. 

We now find swine almost universal, and every where, more or 
less, an object of special care and attention, both as furnishing a 
valuable kind of animal food, and an article of commerce. 

MALTA. 

Coming up the Mediterranean Sea we find the small black Maltese 
breed, the bodies of which are almost bare and smooth, and which 
iatton so aptly and afford such delicate pork. Spain then oflfers its 
breeds, none of whi'ii are, however, held in great estimation out of 
their native country. The chief of these is a short-headed, long, ye* 
round-bodied, dumpty-legged variety, of a reddish-brown or copper 
color : the skin fine and the bristles slender; it is small in size, very 



SWINE IN EUROPE. 67 

prolific, and may easily be flittened to an enormous weight. This 
breed is also found in Portugal and some parts of the south of Italy ; 
it closely resembles the Siamese pigs, and has doubtless originally 
sprung from them. The far-famed Bologna sausages are made from 
the flesh of this animal. 

ITALY. 

Italy too is in some degree celebrated for its pigs, the best breeds 
of which, like the Maltese, are small, black, destitute of bristles, and 
delicate in flesh. The Neapolitan breed has been extensively ex- 
ported, for the purpose of crossing with other kinds, and has found 
considerable favor in many parts of England. In themselves these 
pigs are not sufficiently hardy for general use, but, crossed with 
rougher breeds, they yield a valuable progeny, fine in form, delicate 
in flesh, and easy to fatten. There is a much larger race of swine 
bred in the Duchy of Parma,^and generally considered to be the 
finest breed in Italy, in every point of view. 

In Palermo, Bosco, the environs of Rome, and the neighborhood 
of Bologna, Count Chateauvieux tells us pigs are kept. Those at 
Bosco, on the Apennines, he describes as a good breed, which the 
farmers fatten on chestnuts and milk, housing them in the winter 
and suffering them to run over the mountains during the summer. 
At the farm of Campo Morto he found a herd of 2000, of the 
domestic breed, and black. They run all the year on the immense 
tract of land which extends towards the sea, are fattened on nuts and 
acorns, and yield excellent meat. They are not indigenous, but 
have been brought thither to stock the woods, and they are regarded 
by the proprietor of that farm as the most valuable part of his 
stock, for their keep costs him little or nothing, and they yield a 
very good profit. 

The pigs he found on the marshy plains of Polesimo, between 
Bologna and Ferrara, he describes as large, lean, thin-flanked, and 
long-limbed animals. (Chateauvieux's Letters from Italy.) 

GERMANY. 

Pursuing our way to Germany we meet with totally different ani- 
mals, submitted for the most part to an entirely diflferent manage- 
ment. The common breeds of the country are every where describ- 
ed as huge, gaunt, long-legged, lean-bodied, greyhound-like animals, 
with exceedingly long snouts and coarse bristles, forming almost as 
much of a mane on the neck and shoulders as those of the wild 
boar. 

In l*russiaand mony parts ol Poland a rather smaller but scarcely 
less uncouth race are met with, of a yellow or redd 'sh-bf own color. 



68 THE HOG. 

Thiler informs us, that "the chief breeds of figs knowr. in the 
north of Germany and crossed in various different ways, are, — the 
Moldavian, Wallachian, and Bothnlan, remarl^able for their enor- 
mous size, iron -gray color, and large lapping ears ; and the Polish, or, 
properly speaking, the Podolian, which are also very large, but are 
of a yellow color, and have a broad brown stripe along the spine." 
These two breeds, he says, furnish the large pigs for fattening, but 
they require a proportionably large quantity of food, and besides 
are not very productive, the sows seldom bringing forth more than 
four or five at the most at a birth. 

The Bavarian pigs, he states, are much esteemed for their small 
ness of bone and aptitude to fatten ; but the flesh is not liked, it 
being too flabby and soft. This breed is usually marked with red- 
dish-brown spots. 

The Westphalian is another breed very generally met with; 
these animals are large in size and very prolific, bringing forth ten 
or twelve at a litter. 

The next variety mentioned he designates " the English pig," and 
describes it as being large, full, and deep in the body, and requiring 
very substantial fjod. A cross between this breed and the West- 
phalian is stated to produce an excellent animal. 

To these he adds the Chinese breed, the Spanish or African black 
pig, which he estimates very highly from its aptitude to fatten on 
indifferent or scanty food, its rapid growth, delicate flesh, excellent 
hams, and the advantages derived from crossing the larger breeds 
with it ; and lastly, the German ]>ig, properly so called. But it 
appears that this can scarcely be J egarded as a distinct breed, but 
rather as the result of numerous and various crosses, for he says: 
" This breed is different in its characteristics in diflerent provinces ; 
the color is white, black, gray, or spotted. It is of a middling size 
and can be supported on a moderate quantity of nourishment. 
There is no doubt but that by more attention being bestowed upon 
the breeding, rearing, and feeding of this race, they might be mate- 
rially improved, but most of the persons who undertake the man- 
agement of pigs on an extensive scale, seem rather anxious to try 
the effect of different and new crosses than to improve the old 
breed." 

HUNGARY. 

In Ilunfiary, Croatia, and Servia a race of swine resembling that 
found in Turkey are met with ; small, of a dark gray color, and 
short-legged, yet not apparently deriving their origin from the 
Chinese. The flesh of the swine reared in Servia is said to be more 
delicate than will be met with any where throughout the whole of 
Europe. 



SWINE IX FRAIsCE. 69 

'■p. Polancl, Russia, Sweden, and the northern parts of Europe, 
the -wine yet retain all the characteristics of their ancestor the wild 
boar. They are mostly of a red, or dirty brown, or yellow color; 
long in the body, light and active in make, having long legs, a broad 
flat head, erect ears, and a nervous, slightly up- turned snout. They 
are wild in their habits, fierce, not aj.*" fatteners, or producing deli- 
cate meat. 

In Holland and Belgium we find numerous varieties and crosses, 
but the original breeds have large bodies and long lopping ears; the 
sows are prolific, and if properly attended to, the animals fatten very 
kindly. There is a variety often met with, — and much esteemed for 
its productive powers, its disposition to fatten, and the delicacy of its 
flesh, — which most probably derives its origin from a cross between 
a native pig and one of the Siamese breed. This animal is of a me- 
dium size, rather short on the legs, with a full round body, straight 
back, broad flanks, and small head. The bristles are white and thin! v 
scattered over the back, bat growing rather closer upon the neck 
and towards the head. 

FRANCE. 

The original breeds of France are mostly coarse ungainly animals, 
for the most part white, excepting towards the south, and there we 
Hnd the native breeds very much to resemble those of Italy. "Jn 
the time of Buffon, the greater proportion of the hogs in the north 
of France were white, as were likewise those of Vivarais; while in 
Dauphiny, which is not far distant, they were all black. Those of 
Languedoc and Provence were also of the latter color. Black pigs 
still prevail both in Italy and Spain. According to the great French 
naturalist, one of the most evident marks of degeneration (an ill-ap- 
plied term) is furnished by the ears, which become more supple and 
pendent as the animal changes into the domestic state. He regards the 
wild boar as the model of the species erroneously, for it can only 
be looked upon as formed on the model best adapted to the haunts 
and habits of a wild animal, the welfare of which requires either the 
instinct of a cunning concealment or the possession of strength or 
swiftness. Now concealment in a pigsty is of little avail when the 
day of terror comes, and the obesity of a well-fed porker is, and 
must ever continue, entirely inconsistent either with speed of foot or 
vigor of limb ; therefore the proper attributes of the animal in its 
unreclaimed and domesticated conditions being incompatible with 
each other, those of the tbrmer ought not in any way to be set up or 
assumed as a model by which the latter should be altered or im- 
pr( ved." — Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii. Of late years 
French agriculturists have seen the advantages small breeds possess 
over large ones, and endeavored by judicious crosses to reduce the 



70 THE HOG. 

size of their pigs, and at the same time give to the breeds all the 
value arising from early maturity, a kindly disposition, and produc- 
tiveness. M. Magne says, " Our breeds of pigs are in general very 
defective ; they are long-limbed, thin-necked, narrow-chested, and 
have high curved backs ; they are hardy, but far from precocious, 
fatten with difficulty, and consume an immense quantity of food com- 
pared with the flesh they yield." 

We are partly indebted to Mr. Wilson's valuable " Essay on Do 
mestic Animals" for the following account of the present chief 
breeds of swine in France. The most distinguishable of the present 
races of France are the following: — 

" 1. The race of the Pays d'' Auge, (by some authors called the 
Normandy breed,) which has the head small and sharp-pointed ; the 
ears narrow and pointed ; the body lengthened ; the legs broad and 
strong; the hair coarse, spare, and of a white color; and the bones 
small. It attains to the weijxht of 600 lbs." M. Bella considers that 
this breed are great eaters, but do not fatten kindly. 

2. The race of Poitu, of which the head is long and thick, the point 
projecting; the ears large and pendulous; the body lengthened ; the 
bristles white and coarse; the feet broad and strong; and the bones 
large. Its weight does not exceed 500 lbs. 

8. The race <f Perigord, of which the neck is thick and short, the 
Dody broad and compact, and the hair black, short, and rough. This 
race, v/hen crossed with the Poitou pigs, produces very good ani 
mals ; and it is probable that the pied swine, so common in the 
south of France, are descended from this cross. 

4. The race of Boiilogne. Of considerable dimensions, and well 
inclined to fatten quickly; ears very broad; general color white. 
This breed has sprung from a cross between the large English breed 
and one of the common races of France. 

Of other continental races we shall mention the Jutland swine. 
Of these the ears are large and pendent, the body elongated, the 
back somewhat curved, the legs long. The size of this breed is con- 
siderable, as from 200 lbs. to 300 lbs. (French livres) of lard are 
got from them in their second year. They form an important branch 
of commerce. 

The race known abroad under the name of Cochnn de Siam is the 
representative of our Chinese breed. Its ears are short, straight, and 
flexible ; its body is covered with soft and somewhat silky hair, which 
is stiff and thick on the head and back of the neck, and frizzly on the 
cheeks and under jaw ; on the other parts it is thin, and for the most 
part hard and black. The skin is also black, except on the belly; 
the eyes are surrounded by a slight tinge of flame-color; their tails 
measure nine inches in length ; their bodies three feet three inches; 
their height at the shoulder is one foot eight inches (French.) Thia 



SWINE IN FRANCE. 71 

breed appears to have spread extensively over most of the southern 
shores of the old continent. 

To these he adds the Turkish hog, the New Guinea hog, De Witt's 
hog, and the smooth or short-legged swine, the two latter of which 
evidently derive their origin from a cross with the Siamese and some 
other breed, and all of which fatten easily and to a great weight, and 
are good breeders. 

The swine in Normandy are, even to the present day, of the large, 
gaunt, grizzly race, common in some of the south-eastern counties of 
England and Germany. Mr. Wilson informs us that in the time of 
Buffon, by far the greater proportion of the swine in the north of 
France were perfectly white, as were also those of Vivarais; while 
in Dauphiny, which is not far distant, they were all black. Those of 
Languedoc and Provence were likewise black. This is a curious 
fact, and seems to prove, beyond a doubt, that the parent stock 
of these two opposite colors was totally different, and also that there 
was little intermixture or crossing among the breeds of these places, 
but that the races were preserved pure and distinct. He also men- 
tions that latterly a new variety of the porcine race has been intro- 
duced under the name of " Le Pore de Nobles,'''' which appears to have 
been derived from the improved Ensilish breed, which originated 
from a cross between an Anglo-Chinese sow, and an emancipated 
wild boar. This answers very well, and is much esteemed on ac- 
count of the delicate flavor of its flesh. 

In Champagne the breed of pigs are white, long-limbed, flat-sided, 
hollow in the flanks, and having large ears. 

In Quercy the breed is of a moderate size, has a small short head, 
little ears, and a curved back ; most of these pigs are spotted, but 
there is more of black than white in them. 

In the department of Mayenne, and along the Oudon, some very 
valuable kinds are found, which have been carefully bred, and reared 
expressly for the purpose of improving the French breeds of pigs. 
There are two distinct varieties, the one called the " Craon Breed," 
which has a long body, short legs, and a back so broad that even 
when the animals are lean the spine does not project. These fatten 
well and easily, but do not begin to make much ilesh until they are 
eleven or twelve months old, after which they rapidly develop 
themselves, and attain an immense weight. 

The other variety is designated the " Valley Breed"; here, too, the 
legs are short, the body of a medium length, the back extremely 
broad, the ears large and falling to the tip of the snout, which is short 
and wide ; the back is covered with bristles, the tail finished with a 
tuft of the same, and from the under-jaw two hairy appendages similar 
tv) those of a goat depend. Pigs of this breed fatten well, and may 
b^. killed at any age. 

In the province of Bresse, in the neighborhood of Lyons, of the 



72 THE HOG. 

Donibes, and Carolais, and prevalent through the depnrtnient ol 
Aisne, is a breed called the Bressane race. These animals are of a 
moderate size, long in the body, round in form, short-legged, with 
long, pendulous ears, and of a dark or biackish color, with a brojid 
stripe of white encircling the body : their flesh is delicate, and of a 
fine flavor. 

An attempt was made to introduce some of the English breed of 
swine into France by an agriculturist, and he thus narrates the 
results : — " I began with the large Shropshire pigs. They pleased 
my eye, and for some little time I was perfectly satisfied ; but pre- 
sently I began to remark, that, although they devoured an amazing 
quantity of food, they fattened but very slowly, and seemed to derive 
no advantage whatever from the herbage and vegetables which they 
found in the fields. 

"When killed, the flesh, and especially the fat, was exceedingly 
coarse. The sows, nevertheless, yielded many pigs at each farrow, 
which, from their size when young, sold well to persons who were 
tolerably rich, and knew little or nothing about the breeding of 

"I next tried the small Berkshire pigs, and immediately perceived 
a very sensible improvement. They fattened quickly, procured most 
of their nourishment from the fields, and their flesh was very superior 
to that of the last-named breed. But as they wei-e large, I thought 
to effect a still greater improvement by exchanging them for the 
Chinese ; but here I fell into the opposite extreme. The Chinese 
were prolific, fiittened speedily, and almost obtained their own sub- 
sistence ; but they were faulty in form, their flesh was not firm, but 
loose in fibre, as if they had died of disease." And, accordingly, 
the experimenter returned to some of his best native breeds. 

In Flanders and the Netherlands the indigenous swine are long- 
legged, narrow-backed, flat-sided, ugly, gaunt animals, difficult to 
fatten ; but when in good condition making fine-flavored, excellent 
pork and bacon. 

THE CHANNEL ISLANDS. 

Jersey. — Great attention has here been paid to the breed of pigs, 
which have improved by crosses and admixture with the best Eng- 
lish and French varieties. The pork is excellent; many declare it 
to be finer and more delicate in flavor than any English pork. It 
forms one of the chief articles of consumption during the winter 
months. 

Guernseyt — The swine here have latterly been considerably im- 
proved by the exertions and encouragements of the Guernsey Agri- 
cultural Society. The original breed resembled the native French 
and Irish pigs, and were large, coarse, ungainly, and unprofitable, 



SWINE IN THE CHANNEL ISLANDS. 78 

evidently descended from the wild long-legged, flat-sided race ; but 
iudicious crosses with the Hampshire and Berkshire breeds, have 
now made it a well-shaped, profitable animal. The Guernsey pigs 
of the present day fatten readily and cheaply, and often attain to an 
enormous size. One was killed not long since weighing 640 pounds, 
otfal not included. The pig here forms part of the establishment of 
every cottager, and is kept a close prisoner in his sty, where he is 
well supplied with buttermilk, bran, potatoes, cabbages, and all kinds 
of vegetables dui-ing the spring and summer, and fed almost exclu- 
sively on parsnips from September. They are generally killed at 
about twenty months old, and wa^igh then from 300 to 400 or 450 
pounds. Pork forms the staple food of the Guernsey farmers and 
cottagers. The author has here to acknowledge his obligation to 
Colonel Lake, of Woodlands, Guernsey, iox the information so kindly 
contributed by him. 

Sark. — The swine here are very similar to those of Guernsey ; 'i 
there is any difference, it is that they are somewhat larger. They 
are managed in a similar manner, fatten well, and are profitable 
animals. 

Alderney. — Here, too, the original large breed have been improv- 
ed by judicious crosses. The fat hogs reach an enormous size, 
sometimes even outweighing a tolerably fed cow ; but 500 pounds 
is no uncommon weight. 

The Isle of Man. — Here the original breed of swine are sm.all, 
M'ild, apt to fiitten, and that without much care or attention, and 
yielding excellent meat. Crosses have been introduced, which. per- 
haps have better adapted the animals to the system of sty-feeding; 
but we question whether they can be said to be improved by having 
been rendered more dependent upon the care of man. 

The Hebrides, or Western Isles. — The most common breeds 
of these islands are generally considered to be aboriginal, and line- 
ally descended from the wild boar. These swine are described as 
being very small, active, and shaggy, of a grayish or dirty yellow 
color, grazing wild upon the hills like sheep, their sole food herbage 
and roots, and receiving no other sustenance or shelter all the year 
round but what is furnished them by nature, yet being in good con- 
dition, and affording excellent meat. When artificially fed, and care- 
fully sheltered and tended, they will attain to a very considerable 
bulk, without any deterioration of the quality and flavor of their 
flesh. 

The Shetland Islands. — The breed of swine here, very much re- 
semble those we have just been describing. They are small, of a 
dirty white or yellowish brown color, remarkably strong in the 
.snout, with sharp-pointed ears, and arched back, from which rises a 
forest of stiff brustles When poor, the flesh of these animals is 
eoarsc j but those wl»ich are properly fattened yield sweet and deli- 
4 



74 THE HOG. 

cate meat, and the hams, when cured, are pronounced by connois- 
seurs to be excellent. The Shetland pigs are generally suffered to 
rc>am about and forage for themselves at will, and the mischief they 
do is by no means inconsiderable ; for with their muscular snouts 
they plough up the soil, and root out potatoes, carrots, and turnips, 
and even upturn the growing corn ; and, far from being a source 
of profit, are, from the mischief they do, an absolute loss to tlie 
country. 

Dr. Hibbert, [Account of the Shetland Isles^) describes the origi- 
nal Shetland pig as "a little brindle monster, the very epitome of" a 
wild boar, yet scarcely larger in size than a terrier dog : — 

" His bristled back a trench impaled appears, 
And stands erected like a field of speara" 

According to his account, " this lordling of the seat- holds and 
Arable lands ranges undisturbed over his free demesnes, and, in quest 
Of the earthworms and the roots of plants, furrows up the pastures 
or corn-fields in deep trenches, destroying in his progress all the 
plovers', curlews', and other birds' nests he meets with. He bivouacs 
in some potato-field, which he rarely quits until he has excavated 
a ditch large enough to bury within it a dozen fellow-commoners 
of his own weight and size. Nor is the reign of this petty tyrant 
wholly bloodless ; young lambs just dropped often fall victims t(» 
his ferocity or thirst for blood." 

The Orkneys. — To describe the swine found here would be but 
a repetition of what we have alrea<ly said. They are small, of ro- 
ving habits, do much mischief, yield but poor meat unless carefully 
fattened, and seldom reach a weight of more than sixty or seventy 
pounds. Low informs us that the pork rarely fetches more than 
2d. per pound, and a butcher never thinks of giving more than 45. or 
5s. a-head for the pigs. Ropes are fabricated from the bristles of these 
animals, by which the natives suspend themselves over the most 
fearful precipices in search of sea-fowls' eggs; and, short as the hair 
or bristles are, the ropes manufactured from them are said to answer 
better for this perilous purpose than hempen ones would, being less 
liable to be frayed by the sharp and rugged rocks. 

It is in these northern islands that several authors have spoken of 
swine being used as beasts of draught, but it could not have been 
these aboriginal and diminutive breeds, we should conceive, but 
fcome uf the large, heavy kinds imported from England or Ireland. 



8 WINE IN SCOTLAND 76 



CHAPTER Yl 

Scotland, aboriginal breed of Swine in— IJ ,c .^nown until lately— Present race*— England, 
oris-inal breed — Swine in Yorksliire — Lincoln?'liiie — LeictSltr^hire — Bed lordsh ire— Esses— 
Sufldlk — Norfolk — Sliropshire — Cheshire — Gloucestershire — Herefordshire — Wiltshire- 
Berkshire — Hampshire — and Sussex — llie Chiuese breed — Swine inlrela:id. 



SCOTLAND. 

There can be little doubt but that the aboriginal breed of High- 
land swine are, like those found in the Hebrides, descended from 
the wild boar, for until within the last half-century, they retained 
much of the form, and many of the habits and characteristics, of 
the wild breed. They also are small, shaggy, bristled, and wild ; 
Avandering about the hills, grazing and seeking out roots and other 
favorite food, and requiring no care or sustenance at the hand of 
man, yet keeping in condition, and making excellent pork or bacon. 
The latter end of the autumn is the best time to kill them, as they 
are then in good flesh. 

Those which have been brought into the low country and arti 
ficially fed, have fattened to a considerable size, and yielded fine- 
grained, firm, and well-flavored meat. 

Formerly immense herds of these small swine were reared in the 
Highlands of Scotland, and brought down to the Lowland markets 
for sale; the practice of keeping these animals gradually declined 
some fifty or sixty years ago, but has latterly been revived since 
the cultivation of the potato has become more extensive. There 
cannot, however, be a doubt that a great number of this breed of 
pigs might be advantageously fattened upon every Highland farm 
where the land and crop is inclosed, both on account of the little 
artificial food they require, and the roots and various substances 
they will consume which no other kind of stock would touch. 

But although the practice of keeping swine in the Highlands and 
north of Scotland is of very ancient date, there are no records which 
speak of their existence in the more southern parts of Caledonia; 
indeed, if we may give credence to several anecdotes related by Mr. 
Henderson, they were absolutely unknown animals in several parts. 
Treatise on Breeding Swine. 

It would seem that, some hundred and twenty years since, a person 
residingin the parishofRuthwell, in Dumfriesshire, received apresent 
of a young pig, which is said to be the first which had ever appeared 
in that part ot the country. This pig strayed from his new home 
one day into the adjoining parish of Carlavroc, and wandering along 
the seaside came upon a w^oman who was keeping cattle. Sh« 
screamed at the sight of the " strange beast," and ran off to her 
vjllacre, and the pig after her. There she declared she had seen «' the 



76 THE HOG. 

deil come out of the sea, and that lie had chased her, roaring and 
gaj'^ing at her heels." One of the bravest of the villagers got a Bible 
and an old sv^'ord to "cunger the dell ;" but while he was uttering his 
threat?., along came the creature with such a loud "grumph," that 
the poor man fell down half dead with fright, and all the rest fled, 
and then from windows and house-tops peeped at the " monster," 
LUitil one fellow cried out that it was " the gude man o' the brow's 
grumphy," and gradually the alarm subsided. 

This same pig seems to have frightened many persons at different 
tiuics, as did another which escaped by some means from a vessel 
which put into Glencaple Quay, just below Dumfriesshire, and was 
hunted as a wild beast, and at last slain with a pitchfork by a man, 
who was termed " stout-hearted Geordy" all the rest of his life for 
the performance of this valorous exploit. 

In 1760 there was scarcely a parish in Dumfriesshire which could 
muster twenty swine, but within ten years of that time they gradually 
began to increase, and each farmer took to keeping one or two, and 
from 1775 to 1780 the trade became pretty considerable. This 
increase was chiefly owing to the exertions of Lord Grahaip, of 
Nethcrby, who encouraged the breeding and rearing of swine among 
his tenants by every means in his power, and was the chief institutor 
and supporter of a market at Longtown, in Cumberland, for the sale 
of swine and pork. 

The next step were the establishments of pig-markets in several 
other principal towns in the southern parts of Scotland, and small 
premiun'is offered on every market-day to the owners of the finest 
pig oi- the largest number of good swine brought to the market* 

Where thirty or forty years ago there was not a pig to be seen, 
as much as 400/. or 500/. worth of hogs and bacon, or pork, are now 
sold every market-day. This alteration is ascribed by some persons 
to the extension of the cultivation of the potato, and the consequent 
increased facility for feeding and fattening swine ; but it may, doubt- 
less, be also attributed to the increasing demand for animal food, the 
more extended views of farmers and agriculturists of the present 
day, and an appreciation of the profit and advantage arising from the 
keeping of these valuable animals. 

There is a very good kind which are well made, white in color, 
nave short upright ears, fatten quickly and on little food, and come 
early to maturity. Crosses with the Chinese have been tried, but 
they produce too delicate an animal, and consequently have fallen into 
disrepute. It would, however, be needless to enter into an account 
of all the varieties of swnne now existing in Scotland, as, in describing 
the English breeds, we shall have to speak of all those which of late 
years have been introduced into Scotland, and either crossed with 
the original small, dark, prick-eared Scottish pig or with each other, 
OT retained in their natural state. Henderson savs that hundreds of 



SWIXE IN ENGLAND. 



77 



pigs and shot* (pigs from six to eight months old) are brought ovei 
from England every year, and fattened in Scotland. 



ENGLAND. 



The original breeds of this country are now rapidly losing all 
traces of individuality under the varied svstems of crossinor to which 
they are subjected. Formerly they might have been divided into 
two principal classes, the small and the large breeds : the former 
having ears tending to the upright, being dusky in hue, and greatly 
resembling the wild boar in form ; and the latter being long-bodied, 




THE OLD ENGLISH HOG. 



long-eared animals, mostly white or spotted. The former were 
chiefly found in Scotland, and on the northern hills ; and the latter 
in the lower and more midland counties of England, where the hog 
had been more domesticated. 

Where individnals of the pure old breed are met with, they will 
be found long in limb, narrow in the back, which is somewhat curved, 
low in the shoulders, and large in bone; in a word, uniting all those 
characteristics which are now deemed most objectionable, and totally 
devoid of any approach to symmetry. The form is uncouth, and the 
face long and almost hidden by the pendulous eais. They neverthe- 



73 -iHE HOG. 

less have iheir good qualities, although aptitude to fatten does not 
rank among the number, for they consume a proportionally much 
larger quantity of food than they repay ; but the females produce 
large litters, and are flir better nurses than those of the smaller breeds. 
They are, however, now nearly extinct, disappearing before the pre- 
sent rage for diminishing the size of the hog and rendering his flesh 
more delicate; points which, however desirable to a certain extent, 
may easily be carried too far. Low judiciously observes: " While 
we should improve the larger breeds that are left us, by every means 
in our power, we ought to take care that we do not sacrifice them 
altogether. We should remember that an ample supply of pork is 
of immense importance to the support of the inhabitants of this 
country. England may one day have cause to regret that this over- 
refinement has been practised, and future improvers vainly exert 
themselves to recover those fine old races which the present breeders 
seem aiming to efface." 

It would be vain to attempt to particularize the breeds of swine 
at present kept in this country, for they are daily altering their char- 
acteristics, under the influence of some fresh cross ; we will there- 
fore content ourselves with enumerating those which are allowed to 
have been the chief and best breeds, and pointing out some of the 
alterations which have latterly taken place in them. 

YORKSHIRE. ^ 

The old Yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, and 
one of the most unprofitable for a farmer, being greedy feeders, 
difficult to fatten, and unsound in constitution. They were of a 
dirty white or yellow color, spotted with black, had long legs, flat 
sides, narrow backs, weak loins, and large bones. Their hair was 
short and wiry, and intermingled with numerous bristles about the 
head and neck, and their ears long. When full grown and fat they 
seldom weighed more than from 350 to 400 lbs. 

These have of late years been crossed with pigs of the new 
Leicester breed ; and where the crossings have been judiciously 
managed and not carried too far, a fine race of deep-sided, short- 
legged, thin-haired animals have been obtained, fattening kindly, ar-d 
rising to a weight of from 250 to 400 lbs., when killed between one 
and two years old, and when kept over two years reaching even 500 
to 700 lbs. 

Mr. Samuel Wiley, of Bransby, to whose courtesy we are in- 
debted for the information, and who has paid much attention to the 
breeding of swine, keeps only the pure improved Leicester breed, 
which with ordinary feeding will, at sixteen or eighteen months old, 
weigh from 250 to 300 lbs. ; and, when put up to fatten, <»^.ain the 



SWINE IN ENGLAND. 7y 

•weight of 400 lbs. He considers them far superior to, and more 
profitable than the larger breeds. 

Other breeders have crossed with the Chinese and Neapolitan 
breeds, and with some considerable success — the extremes of the 
large and small kinds happily correcting each other. The Berk- 
shire pigs have also been employed as a cross, and hardy, profitable, 
well-proportioned animals obtained. The original breed, in its purity 
size, and defectiveness, is now hardly to be met with, having shareo 
the fate of the other large old breeds, and given place to smallei 
and more symmetrical animals. Mr. Smith, of Hoyland Hall,Shef. 
field, whose kind replies to our queries we have to acknowledge, is 
another great pig-breeder, and his swine have carried off numerous 
prizes ; they appear to be descended from a cross between a York- 
shire and Lord Western's improved Essex pigs. Their chief char- 
acteristics are : smallness of bone, great development of the fleshy 
parts, symmetry of form, and a strong propensity to fatten. Al- 
though hearty feeders, a small quantity of food suffices for them. 
When matured they readily attain the weight of from 400 to 500 
lbs. 

LINCOLNSHIRE. 

The true Lincolnshire pigs are white, with long, straight bodies, 
round carcasses, fine skins, and few bristles ; the heads are well 
formed and of moderate size, and the ears erect, pointing somewhat 
forward, and curling slightly at the tips ; the hair is long and fine, 
but scanty. This breed was formerly considered as superior to any 
but the Berkshire in point of form and value, they being easily fat- 
tened, and the flesh being tender, and of a fine flavor ; with care 
they will reach 600 to 700 lbs. ; and many, at a year and a-half old, 
will weigh 350 to 400 lbs. They certainly do not attain to their 
maturity as early as some of the smaller breeds, but are, notwith- 
standing this, profitable animals, and good, sound, handsome stock. 
A cross between the Lincoln and Chinese pig is productive of an 
animal presenting great tendency to fatten, and a small eater. 

The old breed of this county are long-legged, narrow-backed, un. 
gainly animals, with thick skins, covered with short, thick hair ; the 
head is large, the forehead wide, and the ears set far apart. They 
are far from profitable animals, being enormous eaters, and fattening 
but poorly ; few attain a greater weight than 250 to 280 lbs. 

DERBYSHIRE. 

Here there is no prevailing breed. The greater part of the pigs 
Wept in this county come from Cheshire and Shropshire, and thesf 
are either left in their pure state, or crossed with some of ^hf -mall 



80 



THE HOG. 



English or foreign breeds, according as the taste or circumstanc63 
of the lirnier or breeder leads him to prefer large or small animals. 



LEICESTERSHIRE. 



The old Leicestershire breed was a perfect type of the original 
ho^s of the midland counties ; large, ungainly, slab-sided animals, 
of a light jolor, and spotted with brown or black. The only good 
parts about them were their head and ears, which showed greater 
traces of breeding than any (^ther parts. Mr. Bakewell improved 
them, and the variety thus oljtained was called after him, and was 
superior in value and beauty to the old stock. Within the last few 
years various crosses have been tried, and the original breed is now 
fast losing all its peculiarities and defects. 



ESSEX. 



The Essex pigs, too, have been indebted for their improvement to 
crosses with the foreign breeds, and especially the Neapolitan, and 




LORD WESTERN S ESSEX BREED. 



with the Berkshire swine. They are mostly black and white, the 
head and binder parts being black, and the back and btUy white; 



SWINE IN ENGLAND. 



81 



they have smaller heads than the Berkshire pigs, and Ung thin up- 
right ears, short hair, a fine skin, good hind quarters, and a deep 
round carcass ; they are also small-boned, and the flesh is delicate 
and well-flavored. They produce large litters, but are bad nurses. 

The most esteemed Essex breeds are entirely black, and are dis- 
tinguished by having small teat-like appendages of the skin depend 
ing from the under part of the neck, which are commonly termed 
wattles. Some of these animals will attain the weight of 480 lbs., 
but they are not, according to some breeders, quick fatteners; while 
others prize them for their rapid growth and aptitude to lay on flesh, 
as well as for its excellence; it forms small and delicately-flavored 
pork. Lord Western has been the great improver of the Essex 
pigs, and his breed is highly esteemed throughout the kingdom. 

Some Essex pigs, at only 23 weeks old, carried off" one of the 
prizes at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show of 1846. 



SUFFOLK. 



The old pigs of this county are white in color, long-legged, long 
bodied, and narrow back, with broad foreheads, short hams, and an 




A SUFFOLK BOAR, THE PROPERTY OF HIS LATE MAJESTY "WILLIAM IX. 

abundance of l)ristles, Thev are by no means profitable animals. 
4* 



82 THE HOQ, 

Lord Western's improved Essex breed is much esteemed in Suffolk^ 
and so are the Lincohishire hogs. 

A cross between the Suffolk and Lincohi has produced a hardy 
animal, which fattens kindly, and will attain the weight of from 400 
to 550 and even 700 pounds. Another cross, much approv:.J by 
farmers, is that of the Suffolk and Berkshire. On the whole, there 
are few better breeds to be found in the kingdom, perhaps, than the 
improved Suffolk pigs; they are well-formed, compact, short-legged, 
hardy animals, equal in point of value to the best of the Essex, and 
superior in constitution, and consequently better adapted for general 
keep, and especially for the cottager. The greater part of the pigs 
at Prince Albert's farm, near Windsor, are of the improved Suffolk 
breed ; that is to say, the Suffolk crossed with the Chinese. They 
are medium in size, with round, bulky bodies, short legs, small heads, 
and fat cheeks. Those arising from the Berkshire and Suffolk are 
not so well shaped as those denved from the Chinese and Suffolk, 
being coarser, longer-legged, and more prominent about the hips. 
They are mostly white, with thin, fine hair ; some few are spotted, 
and are easily kept in fine condition ; they have a decided aptitude 
to fatten early, and are likewise valuable as store-pigs. 

Many of the improved Suffolk breed will, at a year or fifteen 
months old, weigh from 250 to 320 pounds ; at this age they make 
fine bacon hogs. The sucking pigs and porkers are also very deli- 
cate and delicious. 



BEDFORDSHIRE. 

There is no distinct breed in this county ; the animals are mostly 
Suffolk or Berkshire pigs, variously crossed. Some of the best 
kinds are distinguished for their aptitude to fatten early, and on a 
email quantity of food. 

NORFOLK, 

The pigs of this county do not materially differ from those Oi 
Lincolnshire, but are rather smaller. They, too, are white, fine 
bonod, long-eared, and well-formed, good feeders, and yielding fine 
meat. This is especially the case in that part of the county which 
approaches Lincoln. Various breeds and varieties, are, however, to 
be met with in Norfolk, and among them some very inferior ani- 
mals. There is a small variety resembling the Chinese, and pro- 
bably descended from that breed, which is peculiar to this county, 
and much esteemed for its aptitude to fatten on a small quantity of 
food. A cross between the Norfolk and Suffolk j)igs produces a fineu 
hardy animal. 



6WINE IN ENGLAND.. S3 



NORTHAMPTOrfSIIIRE. 

The old breed of Northamptonshire were large-bodied, lar^e-boned, 
bristly animals, covered with white, coarse hair. Their legs were 
short and their ears very long, so much so as often to trail upon the 
ground. They were capable of being fattened to a considerable size, 
but not without great trouble and expense. These gave place to a 
lighter-made animal, equally large, but with small bones, small ears, 
and greater aptitude to fatten. The Bakewell Leicester pigs are 
highly esteemed by some of the breeder's and farmers of this county 

SHROPSHIRE. 

This seems to have been only another variety of the Northampton- 
shire pigs ; they are coarse, ungainly animals, with long heads, pend- 
ent ears, arched loins, large bones, flat sides, many bristles, and 
coarse wiry hair; they are brindled, or of a dirty white-gray, or 
drab color, with spots of black. They were capable of being fat- 
tened to a considerable size, and might be made at two years old to 
weigh 560 or 575 pounds ; but to accomplish this an abundance of 
food was required. They are by no means adapted for farm stock ; 
but brewers, distillers, and those who have large quantities ofrefuse 
wash and grains, hold them in some estimation. Latterly the breed 
has been very much improved, and rendered more profitable, by 
crossing it with the Berkshire, Chinese, and other esteemed breeds, 
under the influence of which the most salient and objectionable 
points have disappeared, and the animals are now short-legged, fine- 
haired, straight backed, and thin-skinned, white in color, and weigh- 
ing 200 pounds at two years old. Lord Forester of Willy Park, 
and Sir F. Lawly of Monkhopton, are in possession of the best 
breeds. 

CHESHIRE. 

The old breed of this county were some of the largest swine in 
England, standing from three and a half to four and a half feet high. 
They were blar-k and white, white, and blue and white ; long-bodied, 
narrow-backed, slab-sided, large-boned, long-limbed animals, having 
large heads, drooping ears, of such a size as scarcely to permit them 
to see out of their eyes, and loose coarse-looking skins. Neverthe- 
less they fiitten to an enormous weight, and without consuming a 
comparatively larger amount of food than many of the nmch more 
esteemed English breeds. One excellent variety has been obtained 
by a cross with a Berkshire boar. 

Of late years, however, the old Cheshire breed has almost entirely 
disappeared, and been replaced by a fine boned round-bodied ani- 



84 THE HOG. 

mal, longer from head to tail and \vider Kcross the shoulders, coining 
earlier to maturity and easily fatten ; the form of the head, too, is 
improved, and the ears are smaller and more shapel}^ These ani- 
mals are chiefly derived from the old Berkshire and Cheshire breeds 
with an occasional and judicious cross with the Chinese. There is, 
too, a slight admixture here and there of the Leicestershire blood. 
They never attain to the size or weight of the old breeds, but their 
forms are more compact, their flesh finer gramed, and their bones 
smaller. They are considered by many persons to be equal in 
value in all points to any breed in Europe. 

GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 

The Gloucestershire is another of the large old breeds, gaunt, long 
legged, and unprofitable, of a dirty white color, and having wattles 
depending from the neck. It has been supposed to have once been 
the prevailing breed in England, but is now rapidly disappearing 
before the alterations produced by the present prevailing system of 
crossing from small breeds. 

HEREFORDSHIRE. 

The pigs of this county are of the large class, similar in many re- 
spects to the Shropshire swine, and in all probability produced by a 
cross between those and some one or more of the smaller breeds; 
for they are smaller, finer-boned animals than the Shropshire pigs, 
have better-shaped heads and ears, are more compact in form, and 
have greater aptitude for fattening. They may, in fact, be fed to an 
enormous size ; and with proper management will, at two years old, 
weigh two or three times as much as most hogs of other breeds at 
the same age. No farmer need wish to possess finer and more pro- 
fitable animals than may be found among the Heref(->rdshire pigs ; 
the bacon made of their flesh yields in excellence to none. 

'^jatterly this breed has been crossed with the Berkshire, and the 
result has been a fine, useful animal, possessing numerous good points, 
but not much superior to the good old stock. 

WILTSHIRE. 

Here the old breed was one of the laro-er class. The Wiltshire 
swine were long in the bi^dy, round in carcass, hollow about the 
shoulders, ;\nd high on the rump; short-legged, lirge-boned, light- 
colored, and the ears were large and pointed. They were, like most of 
this kind of pigs, large eaters and slow to fjitten ; but when fat attained 
a fair average weight, and their flesh was fine-grained and highly 
esteemed, especially as bacon. Crosses with the Chinese and Ne^ 



SWINE IN ENGLAND. 85 

poHtan breeds have, however, much improved the original race ; they 
are now smaller boned, not so large in size, and fatten earlier and 
more readily. 

CORNWALL. 

The Cornish Breed. — Here again, the march of improvement is 
decidedly evident ; the old Cornish hog, a large, white, long-sided, 
heavy-boned, razor-backed animal, possessing but little aptitute to 
fatten, is nearly extinct ; and in its place we see a compact, welUmado 
pig, fattening kindly, coming early to maturity, and yielding in excel- 
lence and value to few. This variety has been produced by crossing 
the old breed with the Berkshire, Chinese, Essex, Leicester, ana Nea- 
politan pigs. These animals require little fo(~>d beyond vegetables and 
the farm-house wash, excepting at the period of fattening, when about 
3 bushels of barley will suffice to bring them, at nine months old, to 
the weight of from 350 to 400 pounds. 

BERKSHIRE. 

The Berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are distinguished 
by their color, which is a sandy or whitish brown, spotted regularly 
with dark brown or black spots, and by their having no bristles. The 
hair is long, thin, somewhat curly, and looks rough ; the ears are 
fringed with long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a rag- 
ged or feathery appearance; the body is thick, compact, and well- 
formed ; the legs short, the sides broad, the head well set on, the 
snout short, the jowl thick, the ears erect, the skin exceedingly thin 
in texture, the flesh firm and well-flavored, and the bacon very su- 
perior. This breed of pigs has been generally considered to be one 
of the best in England, on account of its smallness of bone, early 
maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood, and the females 
being such good breeders. Although termed the Berkshire breed, 
these pigs have been reared in various parts of the kingdom ; and 
some of the very best have come from Staffordshire, from the pro- 
geny of the celebrated Tamworfh hoar. In Leicestershire, also, is a 
very fine race of them, descending from the stock of Richard Astley, 
Esq., who devoted much care to the improvement of the Berkshire 
pigs. Hogs of the pure original breed have ^een knov/n to attain 
to an immen-e size, and weigh as much as 800 to 950 pounds. 

One bred at Petworth measured seven feet seven inches from the 
tip of his snout to the root of his tail, and seven feet ten inches in 
girth round the centre ; five feet round the neck, ten inches round 
the thinnest part of the hind leg, and two feet across the widest part 
of the back. He stood three feet niiie inches high ; and, what waa 
most remarkable in this mon&trous animal, he did not consume more 



86 



THE HOG. 



than two bushels and three pecks of ground oats, peas, and barley 
per week. 

Parkinson, in his Live Stocky vol. ii., gives some extraordinary 
accounts of the size and weight attained by individuals of this breed, 
and the profit yielded by them, and also of their aptitude to fatten 
at grass. 

They arc not, however, generally of an enormous size, behig much 
smaller than several of the older breeds; their ordinary weight 
averages from 250 to 300 pounds, and some will at two years old 
weigh 400 pounds. 




BERKSHIRE SOW. 



It would be impossible to give an account of the numerous crosses 
from this breed ; the principal foreign ones are those with the Chi- 
nese and Neapolitan swine, made with the view of decreasing the 
size of the animal, and improving the flavor of the flesh, and rcnder- 
mg it more delicate ; and the aniinals thus obtained are superior 
to almost any others in their aptitude to fatren, but are very sus- 
ceptible of cold from being almost entirely without hair. A cross 
of the Berkshire with the Suffolk and Norfolk pigs also is much 
approved in some parts of the country. A hardy kind is thus pro- 
duced, which yields well when sent to the butcher; but even the 
advocates of this cross allow that, under most circumstances, thf» 
pure Berkshire is the best. 



SWINE IN ENGLAND. 87 



HAMPSHIRE. 

Hero there are two varieties, the one larger than the other , in 
fcilor they are either white or hjjick .and white, with long necks and 
bodies, flat sides, and large bones. The smaller variety are more 
easily fattened to a considerable size and weight, and make excellent 
bacon, but the larger kind require an extra amount of food to bring 
them to perfection, although when this object is attained they will 
often weigh from GOO to 800 lbs. 

Considerable im|)i-ovement has however been latterly effected by 
crosses of the Berkshire, Chinese, Essex, and Suffolk pigs, with the 
large old Hampshire hog. The animals resulting from these in- 
termixtiires are better shaped and more profitnbie ; ir. fact, they 
bear about them the characteristics of the breed from which they 
were obtained. There is also a third variety of swine found in 
Hampshire, called the "Forest pigs," differing materially from the 
true JIampshire breeds, and in many points strongly resembling the 
wild boar, from which it is not improbable they derived their de- 
scent, for the last wild boars known to be at liberty in England were 
those turned into the New Forest by Charles I., and which he ob- 
tained from Germany with a view to the reintroduction of the fine 
old sport of boar-hunting. The Forest pig is broad-shouldered and 
high-crested ; light and lean in the hinder quarters ; has a bristly 
mane and erect ears ; is of a dark or blackish color ; and lives 
chiefly on beech-mast and acoi'ns. This breed is no fav(.»ri'.e in Hamp- 
shire; the animals are wild, fierce, not apt to fatten, and, from th(;ir 
peculiar make, do not cut up to advantage when killed ; it is, how- 
ever, now losing its distinctive characteristics, and becoming, as it 
were, more civilized or domesticated. 

SUSSEX. 

The breed of this county are by some authors supposed to have 
descended from the large spotted Berkshire swine; while others 
assert them to be a variety of the black and white Essex pig, if not 
the original stock. They are of a moderate size, handsomely formed, 
thin-skinned, and black ,'uid white;; not, however, spotted, but white 
at one extremity and black at the other. The hair is fine and long, 
but spare; the head long and tapering; the ears well set on, and 
pointing forwards ; the eyes quick and vivae^ious ; and the snout fine. 
The chief fault in their make is, that the bones are somewhat too 
large. They grow quickly, feed well, fatten kindly, and will, when 
full-sized, weigh from 5.50 to 8.50 lbs. 

Some of the fincist pigs of this kind ever reared were ii: the pos- 
session of the Western family, at Felix Hall, Essex. 



88 



THE HOG 



In speaking of the breeds of pigs belonging to thiy county, we 
must not omit the now extinct Rudgwick swine, which derived their 
name from a vilhige in Sussex, and were some of the largest hogs 
produced in England. They fattened but slowly, and were conse- 
quently deemed unprofitable, but yielded excellent meat and in con- 
siderable quantities. They have, however, passed away before the 
alterations produced by the general aim of the piesent system of 



breeding. 



THE CHINESE SWINE 



Although these have been already noticed when speaking of Asia, 
we cannot now pass them over, as they actually form one of the 
recognized stock breeds of England. There are two distinct varie- 




CHINESE PIG. 
From a Sow sent direct from China to William Ogilvy) Esq., Hon. Sec. Zoo!. Soc. 

lies, the white and the Hack ; both fatten readily, but from their 
diminutive size attain no great weight. They are small in limb, 
romid in body, short in the'head, wide in the cheek, and high in the 
chine ; covered with very fine bristles growing from an exceedingly 
thin fikin ; and not peculiarly symmetrical, for, when fat, the head is 
6<j buried in the neck that little 'more than the tip of the snout is vis»- 



SWINE IN IRELAND. 89 

ble. Tho pure Chinese hog is too delicate and susceptible of cold 
ever to become a really profitable animal in this country ; it is dif- 
ficult to rear, and the sows are not good nurses ; but one or two 
ju(?icious crosses have in a manner naturalized it. 

This breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quan- 
tity of food ; and the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does not 
r.ake good bacon, and is often too fat and oily to be generally 
esteemed as pork. They are chiefly kept by those who rear suck- 
ing-pigs for the market, as they make excellent roasters at three 
weeks or a month old. Some authors point out five, some seven 
varieties of the Chinese breed, but these are doubtless the results of 
different crosses with our native kinds ; among these are black, 
white, black and white, spotted, and blue and white, or sandy. Many 
vahiable crosses have been made with these animals; fur the preva- 
lent fault of the old English breeds having been coarseness of flesh, 
unwieldincss of form, and want of aptitude to fatten, an admixture 
of the Chinese breed has materially corrected these defects. Most 
of our smaller breeds are Jiiore or less indebted to the Asiatic swine 
for their pr^jsent compactness of form, the readiness with which they 
fatten on a small quantity of food, and their early maturity ; but 
the^e advantages are n(;t considered by some persons as sufficiently 
great to compensate for the diminution in size, the increased deli- 
cacy of the animals, and the decrease of number in the litters. The 
best cross is between the Berkshire and the Chinese, 
mmm 

IRELAND. 

Here the hog is, in the fullest sense of the word, a domesticated ani- 
mal. The Irish pig is born in the warmest nook of his master's cabin, 
reared among the children, and often far better fed and more care- 
fully tended thcan the ragged urchins who play around him, for the 
peasant w'i 11 half starve himself and children in order to have more 
food for his pig ; and while the former have only potatoes, and few 
enough of them, the porker frequently gets not only a good meal 
of potatoes, but some porridge, or bran, or refuse vegetables in ad- 
dition. He i«. in fiict the chief person in the household ; on him the 
poor man rcc-Kons for the payment of his rent or the purchase of the 
necessaries of lite. Swine abound in all parts of Ireland ; scarcely 
a peasant's cot but numbers a pig among the family ; and the roads, 
lanes, and fields in the neighborhood of every village, and the 
«iuhurbs of every large town, are inf;',sted with a gruntingt multitude. 

Until lately, however, notwithstanding the value set on these ani- 
mals, the real Irish pig was a huge, gaunt, long-legged, slab-sided, 
roach-b.icked, coarse-boned, grisly brute ; with large flapping ears 
which almost wholly shrouded the face ; of a dirty white, or llack 
and white color with harsh coarse hair, and bristles that almost 



90 THE HOG. 

stood erect. It was also far from being a profitable animal, requiring 
a very considerable quantity of food, and when fat producing only 
coarse-grained meat. But since the flicility of export has become 
greater, considerable improvement has been effected by the introduo 
tion of Berkshire and Chinese boars and sows, and crossing the ola 
breed pretty extensively with these. Thus the unwieidiness of size 
and coarseness of bone have been diminished, and greater aptitude 
for fattening communicated, which latter qualification is invaluable to 
the poor peasant. There is, however, great room for still further 
improvement, and we trust that before long some enterprising indi- 
viduals will devote their energies to the task, and thus become the 
means of bestowing a great benefit on the peasantry of the " sister 
isle." 

Steam navigation has wonderfully increased the trade in pigs be- 
tween England and Ireland, for we find that in 1821 only 104,501 
of these animals were brought into Liverpool ; while in 1837, 
595,422 were imported. The cost of conveyance has been so mate- 
rially decreased by the facility of steamboat and railway convey- 
ance, that this is not at all to be wondered at. 

Irish pork or bacon is not so fine-grained or so finely flavored as 
the English; and although imported in considerable quantities, sells 
for a much lower price than our own. This has been attributed by 
some to the pigs being entirely fattened on potatoes, but it is also 
referable to the innate coarseness of the animals themselves. 

Martin says:* The improvement in our breeds of domestic swine 
during the last few years has been very decided. And not only so ; 
the general system of crossing now pursued, tends to the establish- 
ment of a uniform race throughout every county, that is, a race 
presenting the same outstanding characteristics. Changes are ra- 
pidly taking place, and the fear is, that the improvements may be 
carried so far as to result in the formation of a stock of animals 
smaller in size than comports with utility, and delicate in constitution. 
We say there is a fear of this : at the same time, we well know that 
the farmer will not lose sight of his own interests. It cannot be 
denied that our breeds, for ages occupiers of the land once tenanted 
by their wild and fierce progenitors, needed great alteration. They 
were large, coarse, unthrifty animals, with a long broad snout, large 
flapping ears, low in the shoulders, long in the back, flat-sided, long in 
the limbs, and large-boned, with a thick hide covered with coarse bris- 
tles. Their color was generally white or yellowish, sometimes more 
ot less spotted with black. They were enormous feeders, but slow 
fatteners, consuming more food than was repaid by their flesh. At 
the same time, the females were peculiarly fertile, and this is almost 
the only thing that can be said in their praise. 

Such, then, was the old, coarse, uncouth breed, spread^ with trifling 

• What fjllow?, to page 100, is by Martin. 



THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL. 91 

degrees of difference, over the greater part of EngUnd. In the 
northern counties, and especially in the north of Scotland, a smaller 
race, with sharp and almost erect ears, greatly resembling the wild 
boar in form, long existed, and is yet extant. These animals were 
dusky or brownish-black, wild in their habits, and very hardy. We 
say uere^ but in fact such is still the race in the Orkneys and He- 
brides. They are small, rough, semi-wild beasts, depending princi- 
pally upon their own means of gaining a subsistence, and are 
evidently the descendants of a wild stock. Their degeneracy in size 
may be attributed to climate and deficiency of nutrition while young ; 
for when brought into more southern districts, and fed in the ordinary 
way, they rapidly acquire an increase in size, fatten kindly, and 
return excellent meat. 

These mountain hogs are in tolerable condition after their summer 
fare, and should be killed in autumn. During the long rigorous 
winter these animals must suffer extremely, and in some islands many 
probably perish. 

This breed, which not a century since was common in the High- 
lands, where vast herds were kept for the sake of sale in the Lowlands, 
is less thoroughly reclaimed than were the old gaunt flap-eared breeds 
of Enojland. The latter had undero^one a certain decn'ee of modifi- 
cation long before the improvements effected in modern days. 
Among these old breeds was one described by Mr. George Culley ; 
it prevailed in Yorkshire and Lancashire; the animals were of large 
size, and white, with huge ears hanging over their eyes. " They were 
very plain, thin, awkward hogs, with very long legs; but what dis- 
tinguished them most was two wattles or dugs, not unlike the teats 
of a cow's udder, which hung down from their throats, one on each 
side." This breed appears to be altogether extinct in our island. 

It is not often that we now hear of hogs of enormous size being 
slaughtered ; formerly such overgrown monsters were not uncom- 
mon. The old Berkshire breed, which in its improved state still 
belongs to the class of large swine, not unfrequently produced huge 
specimens. The surprising weight that some of these hogs have 
been fed to, would be altogether incredible, if we had it not so well 
attested. Mr. Young, in one of his Tours, gives all account of a hog 
in Berkshire which was fed to 1130 lb>. ; but a still more extraor- 
dinary pig was, some years since, killed in Cheshire : — " On Monday, 
the 24th of January, 1774, a pig (fed by Mr. Joseph Lawton, of 
Cheshire) was killed, which measured from the end of the nose to 
the end of the tail, 3 yards 8 inche>, and in height 4 feet 5^ inches ; 
it weighed 12 cwt. 2 qrs. and 10 lbs. when alive (1410 lbs. ) ; when 
killed and dressed, it weighed 10 cwt. 3 qrs. and 11 lbs. avoirdu- 
pois (1215 lbs ) This pig was killed by James Washington, butcher 
in Congleton, in Cheshire." — Callei/, on Live Stock. 

In the month of December, 1S4G, a large hog was slaughtered a^ 



92 THE HOG. 

Buxton. It was white, and two years and two months old. Its 
height was 3 feet 9 inches, the carcass when dressed weighed 660 
pounds, exclusive of fat to the amount of 98 pounds. It was fottened 
upon Indian meal, pea-meal, &c. It was of the improved old Che- 
shire breed. 

In taking a survey of our improved breeds, we can do little more 
than generalize, although a few breeds may require a somewhat 
particular notice ; we mean those to which other strains owe theii 
improvement. 

Among the early improvers of swine must be enumerated Mr. 
Bakewell. Before his time the Leicestershire hogs were of the same 
coarse ungainly kind which prevailed generally throughout the mid- 
land counties. He commenced by a judicious selection of stock 
destined for breeding, and by persevering in this system greatly 
modified the characters of the old race; in due time the Bakewell 
breed extended into other counties, superseding or influeiicing the 
ordinary races. This was the case in Yorkshire, the old breed ot 
which county was of large size, gaunt, greedy, and unthrifty, coarse 
in the quality of the meat, flat-sided and huge-boned. By crossing 
with the new Leicester stock great improvement was soon effected ; 
the cross-breed lost in size but gained in every good quality; it 
becjime deep-sided, short-limbed, small-boned, and fattened readily. 
The coarse wiry bristles were exchanged for fine thin hair, and the 
whole aspect of the animal underwent a transformation. The hogs 
at about two years old averaged from 420 to 840 lbs., younger 
animals weighing in proportion. 

Some of the Yorkshire breeders preferred the pure new Leices- 
ters, and these are still reared by judicious farmers, who esteem them 
as superior to most others, and certainly more profitable than m.ost 
of the larger kinds. They fatten kindly, often attaining the weight 
of upwards of 420 lbs., at the a^e of sixteen or eighteen months. 
Other breeds, however, besides the new Leicester, have found advo- 
cates in Yorkshire : aniong these are the Berkshire, crosses between 
which and the Yorkshire are deservedly esteemed, as are also crosses 
between the Yorkshire and Lord Western's improved Essex variety. 
The latter cross is remarkable for smallness of bone, rotundity oi 
figure, and aptitude for fattening. The hogs when fat average 420 
lbs. The Chinese and the Neapolitan pigs have been tried by several 
breeders, and judicious crosses between these and the Yorkshire race 
are excellent, both as regards good symmetry and fattening quali- 
ties. In fact., the large >»ld Yorkshire stock may be regarded as 
extinct. 

The new Leicesters, even in their own county, have undergone 
modification since the time of Mr. Bakewell. Excellent crosses 
bave been made between them and the Berkshire and Essex breeds. 

The improved Berk^hire hog belongs to the tribe of large swina 



THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL 92 

or, pe.rhap^, rather did. Formerly, hogs of the pure breed were 
often found to weigh from 800 to 960 lbs. ; and it is recorded that 
one bred at Petworth, in Sussex, measured 7 feet 7 inches from the 
tip of the snout to the root of the tail, 7 feet 10 inches in girth round 
the centre, 5 feet round the neck, and 2 feet across the span of the 
back. Ileight 3 feet 9 inches. It was remarkable that this huge 
animal was a moderate consumer of food ; his allowance being 
about two bushels and three pecks of ground oats, peas, and barley, 
per week. 

The present Berkshire breed are moderate-sized beasts, roundly 
made, short in the limb, and with a short arched neck, with heavy 
cheeks, sharp ears, an abruptly-rising forehead, short in the snout, 
well-barrelled, broad-backed, and clean in the limbs; some are 
sandy-colored or whitish, spotted with black, but most are either 
white or black, or half white and half black, a coloring indicative of 
a mixture of the Neapolitan and the Chinese, as well as of the 
Suffolk strain. 

We believe that rather small (not too small) and quickly fatten- 
ing breeds are, from first to last, the most profitable; indisputably 
they afford the best meat, in whatever way it is prepared. 

The new breeds now to be seen in Berkshire are but thinly clothed, 
and are said to be somewhat tender, a circumstance in that sunny 
county of little consequence, for the farmer's straw-yard supplies 
abundant shelter and comfort. 

Around Henley in Oxfordsire, on the banks of the Thames, and 
about Dorking in Surrey, cross breeds of the Berkshire strain pre- 
vail ; although in the latter county the improved Essex breed is 
held in great estimation. 

There are few counties in England into which the Berkshire breed 
of pigs has not penetrated; it is everywhere valued for its ex- 
cellent qualities, its fair, moderate size, its small bones, its thin skin, 
its fatt<.^ning qualities, and excellence of its flesh. First-rate hogs 
of this breed have been reared in distant counties. Through Mid- 
dlesex, Hartfordshire, Bedfordshire, and Leicestershire, the Berk- 
shire breed has extended itself, modifying the old races, not without 
other crossings ; indeed, it must be confessed that the modern sys- 
tem of interbreeding renders it difficult to tell the original stock on 
which the grafts have been made ; or rather, what strain shows itself 
the most prominently. 

In Berkshire it is the general custom to singe the hogs after being 
killed, and not to remove the bristles by means of hot water and 
scraping ; nor do they as a rule smoke the flitches after salting, but 
merely dry them. The same remark applies more or less to the 
adjacent counties ; for example, the bacon sold in Henley is un- 
smoked. In fact, the taste for smoked bacon and hams seems to a 
certain degree to be confined to London, as far as England is con* 



\^4. THE HOG. 

cerned. In Derbyshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, and some of th<» 
neighboring counties, smoked bacon is a rarity. However, thQ pork 1/ 
or the smoky flavor is a matter of taste. 

Wiltshire is celebrated, and deservedly, for bacon, as Yorkshire 
for hams. The old Wiltshire hog was of large size, short-limbed, 
but heavily-boned, long in the body, but round and high on the 
croup. The ears, though large, were pointed. These animals were 
slow feeders, and great consumers of food ; nevertheless, when at 
some cost they were fattened, they produced meat of excellent qual- 
ity, especially fitted for converting into bacon. They were proba- 
bly a mere variety of the Berkshire strain, and certainly possessed 
good qualities; but they are greatly improved, owing to the judici- 
ous crossings with the Chinese and Neapolitan stocks ; and though, 
as might be anticipated, they are smaller in stature than f(H'merly, 
they are finer-boned, more compact in contour, far quicker fatteners, 
and consequently ready for the butcher earlier. At the same time, 
the superior quality of the meat has suffered no decline, indeed 
quite the contrary. Wiltshire bacon commands a high price. 

The Hampshire are excellent hogs, generally black, and middle- 
sized, with rather a long snout, but compactly made ; are a modifi- 
cation of the old large-sized Hampshire stock, individuals of which 
in former days were of huge magnitude, and some carried about 
for show. This colossal breed is now seldom to be seen, but it had 
its good points : when fattened (and time and much food were re- 
quired to eft'ect this) it returned by the way of payment a weighty 
carcase. As in all such cases, however, the question comes in, Was 
it profitable] Was the repayment for food and time in a just ratio '^ 
The answer must be, quick fattening, even with a smaller carcass, a 
gain of time and of provision being included, is one of the points 
in which the farmer finds himself the best remunerated. Sl-ow 
feeders, however weighty their carcass at last, will not be found 
profitable when all expenses are calculated. The present Hamp- 
shire hog is compounded of the old race, and the Essex, the Chinese, 
and the Neapolitan, with an admixture also of the improved Berk 
shire. 

A semi-wild breed of pigs are peculiar to the New Forest; they 
are termed Forest pigs, and differ materially froni the ordinary 
stock cultivated by the Hampshire farmers. Though far inferior in 
size to the true wild hog, these animals exhibit much of the charac 
teristics of that animal, and probably owe their origin to a cross be 
tween the wild h(^gs introduced into the forest by Charles I., and 
some of the ordinary breeds of his period. These animals are 
heavy in the fore quarters, but light and meagre behind ; the withers 
are high, the ears short, the mane thick and bristly, the color black 
or brindled ; the disposition is fierce and distrustful, and they display 
extraordinary activity and acuteness. The troops are headed by 



THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL. 95 

leaders. \vhji;h take alarm at the slightest appearance of danger, and 
are ready on an emergency to act on the defensive. This Forest 
breed, however, is now rarely to be seen in its purity — in fact, it is 
passing away, or perhaps rather m.erging into a more domestic and 
mingled stock, thereby losing its pristine characteristics. 

Lincolnshire is one of the counties noted for an excellent breed 
of pigs. The old race were gaunt, slow-feeding, unprofitable animals, 
with heavy heads and flat sides ; but the improved breed of the 
present day are well-formed, of moderate size, easily ftittened, and 
produce excellent flesh; they are white, with fine skins, and. spa- 
ringly covered with bristles, which are slender ; the ears are erect 
and pointed, the body long, straight, and round. These pigs, deserv- 
edly esteemed, may be fatted to about 630 lbs., and when at the 
age of a year and a half, many are found to range between 280 and 
420 lbs. A cross between the Lincoln and Chinese breed — though of 
diminished size — is found to attain more rapidly to maturity than 
the pure Lincoln, and fattens quickly upon a very moderate allow- 
ance of food. 

Norfolk produces excellent pigs, somewhat smaller than those of 
Lincolnshii-e, but closely agreeing with them in characters ; they are 
well-formed, fatten quickly, and yield fine meat. Besides this breed, 
a smaller race prevails in many parts of Norfolk, descended, as it 
would appear, from the Chinese, which it greatly resembles. These 
pigs are in great estimation ; they fatten readily on a small quantity 
of food, and their flesh is delicate. 

Suffolk, now noted for its improved breed, formerly possessed 
only a coarse, lank, and thriftless stock ; but this has given place 
to a mixed race, admirable for symmetry, and quick and early flit- 
tening. The most generally approved breed is a cross between the 
Suffolk, Berkshire, and Chinese. These animals are rather small, but 
compact, short-legged, and small-headed ; the body is round, and 
they fatten re^adily. At the age of a year, or a year and a half, 
many are found to weigh from 240 to 300 lbs., and produce first-rate 
bacon. The flesh of the sucking-pigs and of the porkers is esteemed 
for its peculiar delicacy. 

Besides this breed, which stands first, there is an excellent cross 
between the Suffbllc and Lincoln ; the pigs attain to a considerable 
weight, ranging frc-m 420 to 560 lbs. and upwards ; they are hardy, 
and fatten readily. Another breed is between the Berkshire and 
Suffolk, and this has its admirers ; it is easily kept in good condition, 
fattens quickly, and makes excellent bacon. Tt is, however, longer 
in the leg and less compact in symmetry than the tri-cross between 
the Suffolk, Berkshire, and Chinese. The improved Lincolnshire 
race is much valued in Suffolk, as is also the improved Essex breed, 
established by Lord Western, and esteemed throughout the kingdom. 
It is black, short-nosed, deep-jowled, short and thick in the neck, with 



96 THE HOG. 

email, sharp ears; the limbs are short and hne-boned, the barrel is 
rounded, the hams very full, the hair is spare and short, the skin 
fine ; some have small wattles or appendages of skin depending 
from the neck. These animals fatten quickly, grow rapidly, and 
yield very superior meat; as porkei'^ they are admirable, the meat 
being peculiarly delicate. The hogs, when fattened, will sometimes 
weigh 360 to 4*00 lbs., often 250 to 280. 

This black breed is greatly crossed with the Neapolitan, and we 
believe the Sussex. 

A modification of this breed is oiten seen in Essex : the pigs, like 
the Sussex, are generally black and white — the head and hinder 
parts being black, and the central portion of the body white. They 
are admirable in shape, with a deep round carcass, and fine skin, 
fine in the bone, and full in the hind quarters. The flesh is excellent. 
The sows produce large litters, but are said not to make the best 
nurses. We did not, however, hear this complaint from any of the 
Essex farmers, during our frequent visits to Rochford and the 
adjacent country. We suspect, however, that the Essex breed is 
delicate, and requires care, as indeed do all high-bred domestic 
quadrupeds. 

Sussex possesses a breed very much like the last particolored 
race, of which it appears to be a variety. These pigs are well-made, 
of middle size, with a thin skin, and scanty bristles ; the snout is 
tapering and fine, the ears upright and pointed, the jowl deep, the 
body compactly rounded. These pigs arrive early at maturity, and 
fatten quickly ; the bacon hogs averaging a weight of 280 lbs. The 
flesh is excellent. Their bone, perhaps, is larger than in the Essex 
breed, but then the improved stocks of this latter race are remark- 
able for smallness of bone, and we doubt whether they are more bony 
than the improved stocks of the old Berkshire strain. The breed is 
undoubtedly valuable, and well adapted for crossing with the Essex, 
Neapolitan!, or Chinese. 

Sussex once boasted of a gigantic race of pigs, known by the name 
of the Rudgwick breed, (Rudgwick is a village in that county,) som.e 
of which were among- the lara;est swine ever reared in our island. 
As is the case with all huge breeds, these animals were slow feeders 
and huge feeders; but yielded an enormous weight of excellent 
meat. Nevertheless, they Vjecame more and more influenced by 
the intercrossings of new breeds, till at length the old stock has be- 
come obsolete, its celebrity depending upon records and notices of 
the last century. 

Bedfordshire has sent some admirable pigs to the great cattle- 
shows in London. Nevertheless, the animals could not be called 
truly Bedfordshire as to peculiarity of breed. They were crosses 
of various kinds, in which, as it appeared to us, the Suffolk strain 
H'as prevalent. 



THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL. 97 

Crossings and intercrossings are everywhere taking place, and all 
the old stocks have become so altered, that the hog race of England 
is generally assuming an approach to universal uniformity. The 
modified New Leicesters and Yorkshires, the improved Berkshires, 
the Essex, and the New SufTolks, with various intermixtures of the 
Chinese and the Neapolitan races, are everywhere extending them- 
selves. The gaunt, lanky, old breeds, flat in the sides and heavy in 
the bone, are now rare, and regarded as curiosities. 

Among this diversity of intercrossings, certain strains are brought 
to high perfection by the breeder's skill and patience, and are deemed 
the highest even of the race to which they may belong. Thus, for 
example, in Berkshire we have the Coleshill strain, the pure Wadley 
strain, and the old Crutchfield strain ; in Essex we have Lord West- 
ern's strain ; and the same observations apply to other counties. 
But too often exorbitant overloading of fat is too much regarded — a 
point of less consequence than shape, fertility, and aptitude to fatten 
upon moderate rations; inasmuch as the wealthy have at their com 
mand the means of forcing animals unnaturally, and think little of 
the waste thereby incurred in order to accomplish their object. 
Pigs are shown not only incapable of standing, but also of seeing, 
from the enormous volumes of fat with which they are loaded. 
Such an accumulation of fot is in itself disease. Think what must be 
the state of the heart, the condition of the circulation, and the cha- 
racter of the muscular fibres. We have heard of mice burrowing 
in the fat of such animals, without appearing to occasion any pain or 
inconvenience. In cattle-shows there is, in many respects, sufficient 
evidence of the general and marked improvement which has taken 
place in this class of -domestic animals ; but we form our judgment 
rather from those which show their points, are really well fed, and 
not ftittened up till they appear like bloated skins of lard — as desti- 
tute of definite shape, as of the power of moving about. What a 
waste of money must the forcing of such a monster occasion ! The 
outlay would have sufficed to bring three pigs into fine and profit- 
able condition. And what is the object ? To show in how short a 
time a pig ran be rendered a mass of fat, and upon what sort and 
quantity of food. The better aim would be, to show how many 
pigs could be well fiittened in a given time upon a stipulated quan- 
tity of food — what breeds fattened the most kindly, and would be 
found the most profitable. 

In Shropshire, Gloucestershire, Cheshire, Herefordshire, Oxford- 
shire, and other counties, the old races of pigs have passed away, 
and crosses with the Berkshire, and also with the Essex and the 
Chinese, have taken their place. In short, the change is universal ; 
and even in the southern parts of Scotland, where formerly but few 
pigs were kept, and those of an inferior sort, excellent breeds pre- 
vail, and pigs are largely reared by the farmers. 
5 



98 THE HOG. 

Ill the Channel Islands — Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark— 
the pig is an important animal, pork being the staple animal foc/d 
of the Islanders during the winter. It is said to be very delicate, 
even more so than any in England. Almost every cottager keeps a 
pig, and is enabled to feed it the more easily, as his garden yields 
an abundant supply of produce. 

The Channel Island breed, once gaunt and coarse, and of French 
extraction, is now greatly improved, and fattens rapidly. The pigs 
are kept in styes, and fed during the spring and summer months on 
buttermilk, bran, potatoes, cabbages, and all kinds of vegetables; 
in the autumn, almost exclusively upon parsnips. Bacon hogs are 
generally killed at about twenty months old, and average from 300 
to 450 lbs. Sometimes, hogs attain to a much larger size ; and 
instances have been known in which they have weighed 640 lbs., 
exclusive of the offal. 

In the Isle of Man, the native breed closely approaches that of the 
Orkney and Shetland Isles. The animals resemble the wild boar 
in miniature, and roam about at liberty ; yet they fatten readily, 
and yield excellent meat. Within the last few years, crosses from 
England have been introduced, and the plan of sty-feeding has been 
practised ; but not with much success. 

It is now time that we turn to Ireland, whence so much of the 
salted pork and bacon sold in England is exported. 

The modern Irish pig has, within the last few years, become greatly 
improved. Formerly, it was a gaunt, flat-sided, large-boned, rough 
beast, long in the leg, sharp along the spine, long in the snout, and 
with huge flapping ears. It was a slow feeder, and yielded coarse 
meat. Latterly, the introduction of some of our best breeds, with 
which to cross the old Irish swine, has been attended with decided 
success, although there is still room for further improvement. The 
sides are sent, roughly salted, to certain houses in London, (and other 
large towns,) and are there finished off" for the market. 

Irish bacon is not to be despised, and, as we have said, the breed 
of pigs is generally much improved. Berkshire, Suffolk, Yorkshire, 
and even Chinese boars and sows, have been introduced, and b}' 
intercrossing^, produced a considerable change — a change, however, 
neither quite so decided nor quite so general as is desirable. Besides, 
the plan of fattening upon potatoes is not calculated to do justice to 
the most improved stocks. 

The Irish bacon is not of such good quality as that fed in Eng 
land, as the animal is generally flittened on potatoes only, while the 
best practice here is, when half fat, to finish off with peas-meal, oi 
barley-meal. The agricultural laborers, in counties where their con 
dition is most comfortable, know that it is most profitable to buy 
the higher-priced English bacon, which swells in the boiling, and is 
at oDce more palatable and substantial than the potato-fed bacon 



THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC AXIMAL 99 

of Ireland. In order to obtain the advantages of the English market, 
great improvements have taken place in the breed of pigs kept in 
Ireland. 

As the Chinese pig is naturalized in our country, a few rencarks 
upon it may not be out of place. 

The Chinese pig is seldom kept in its pure state : its flesh indeed 
is exquisitely delicate, especially that of the sucking pig: and 
though it fattens rapidly and at little cost, yet, from the unctuous 
character of the flit, the sides are not calculated for making p)rime 
bacon. Besides, it is tender, susceptible of cold, and difficult to 
rear, the more so as the sows do not generally make good nurses. 
At the same time, as a source of improvement among our indi- 
genous breeds, by judicious intercrossings, too much cannot be said 
in its praise ; indeed, it has been one of the most successful means 
of introducing reform among our old stocks ; it has corrected the 
fliults of gauntness, of heavy bones, of slow feeding, of coarse flesh, 
and of a dense skin. True, it has caused a reduction in size, but not 
in hardiness, by its intercrossing; yet what advantages have not 
been gained by that very practice 1 

Thus far have we endeavored to illustrate the various influential 
breeds of our own country, including Scotland, Ireland, and the 
smaller islands. To have rigidly analyzed, or rather attempted an 
analysis, of the varieties peculiar to each county or district, would 
have been fjlly — the thing is impossible. Mixtures and intermix- 
tures are perpetually taking place, and individuals are from time to 
time establishing their own favorite crosses. In every county is 
thi^ system of improvement in operation ; the whole is fluctuating, 
yet the broad strong current bears on towards improvement. Ne 
vertheless, in this tideway impulse, the strong hand of a judicious 
steersman is the more necessary : the mark may be overshot. We 
mean that deficiency of profitable size, weakness of constitution, and 
infertility, may, unless judgment in crossing be exercised, detract 
from the merits of an otherwise most valuable stock. 

It would be interesting, could we truly ascertain the amount of 
property invested in the United Kingdom, not only in the porcine 
race, but in other descriptions of live stock; all the* attempts of the 
kind are merely approximations, yet they are not therefore value- 
less — they give, at least, general ideas on the subject, and not un- 
frequently surprise us. 

M'Queen, in his Statistics of the British Empire^ has thus stated 
the enormous value of live stock in the United Kingdom, exclusive 
of domestic poultry (by -the-bye no trifle.; It appears that there 
are 2,250,000 hoaxes, of the total value of £67,000,000, [the pound 
sterling is |4 86,6] of which more than 1,500 000 are used in agri 
culture, and valued at £45.000.000 ; the number of horned cattle in 
the kingdom is about 14,000,000, of the value of £216,000,000 ; the 



100 THE HOG. 

number of sheep 50,000,000, whose value is estimated at £07,000,000. 
The extent of the capital invested in swine is still more extraor- 
dinary, when we reflect how little it is thought upon or taken 
into account. The number of pigs of all ages, rearing, and breed- 
ing, is calculated to be upwards of 18,000,000, which, taking ona 
third at £2 each, and the remainder at 105. each, gives a value of 
£18,870,000, as the capital invested in pigs alone. 

This is of course only an approximation to the truth, for the 
stock of all our domestic quadrupeds is liable, from various circum. 
cumstances, both to increase and decrease ; nevertheless, the state- 
ment, with every deduction, is calculated to excite some degree of 
surprise. — Mautin. 



ANATOMY Am DISEASES OF THE HOG. 



CHAPTER VII. 



TLe Skeleton cf the Hoof — Skull and Snout — Teeth — ^Brain — Apoplexy — Inflammation of th« 
Brain — Plirenitis — The Spinal Cord— Epilepsy— Palsy and Paralysis — Trtanus — Rabies — Xasa. 
Catarrh — The Larynx — The Piiaryiix — The Os Hyoides — Strangles and Quinsy — The Chest- 
Diseased Valves of the Heart — The Bronchial Tubes — Inflammation of the Lungs, or Rising 
ol the Lights — Pleuro-Pneumonia — Epidemics. 

A VERY slight acquaintance with that complicated and beautiful 
structure which we term the anitnal economy, will be sufficient to 
convince us that any rational method of investiijating or treating 
disease must be founded upon an acquaintance with the general con- 
struction of the frame, the derangements and alterations to which it 
is liable, and a concise notion of the various systems or sets of organs 
of which the body is composed. Without this amount of knowledge 
it will be impossible correctly to interpret those signs of alteration 
of structure or function which constitute the symptoms of disease, 
and indicate its nature and seat. 

If we would understand how to regulate the working of some 
complicated machine, ''■ve must not content ourselves with a mere 
cursory glance at its exterior, but closely inspect the different parts ; 
make ourselves acquainted with their shape, situation, and arrange- 
ment; inquire into the principles upon which the whole is construct- 
ed, its mode of action, and the offices which each part was destined 
to perform. Proceeding thus, we shall arrive at a knowledge of 
the best means of preserving it from injury, repairing any accident 
that may happen to it, and maintaining it in a fit state for the effi- 
cient discharge of the duties it was intended to perform. 

The animal economy consist of parts or organs, differing from each 
other in structure and function, yet all so intimately connected 
together, and so mutually dependent upon each other, that the 
cooperation of the whole is necessary to a state of perfect health 
and if any one part suffer injury, the neighboring organs sympathize 
with it to a greater or less extent, and the working of the whole 
system is impaired, hi order to arrive at a proper understanding 
of the functions of any one part of the body, we must study the 
whole; there is no other way of obtaining that insight into disease 
which will furnish us with a clear idea of the precise nature and sea* 
of a malady, and the course of treatment most likely to be attende*^ 
with success. The uninfc rmed empiric wi.o deals about his no3 



102 THE HOG. 

Irums at random, is far more liable to put an end to the life of his 
patient than to arrest the progress of the disorder. Such men should 
never be allowed to tamper with the meanest animal. It is only to 
those who, from close study and long practice, have acquired an 
accurate knowledge of the anatomy, diseases, habits, and general 
management of domesticated animals, that their medical treatment 
can with safety be intrusted. 

It is, however, by no means our intention in this work to give a 
formal treatise on the anatomy, physiology, and diseases of the pig, 
but simply to lay before our readers a tolerably comprehensive 
sketch of the general structure of the animal, and the alterations 
and evils to which certain parts are liable, and this divested as much 
as possible of all the technicalities of professional language. A de- 
scription of the different parts, their form, situation, action, and func- 
tions, as well as their admirable adaptation to the ends for which 
they were designed, will lead us to a consideration of the diseases 
incidental to them — to the treatment proper to be adopted — and to 
some account of the various operations which it may occasionally 
be requisite to perform. In short, we would present them with 
a practical digest of all that is yet known relative to this too much 
neglected branch of veterinary science; one that shall serve as a 
book of reference in cases of doubt or emergency, and aid in intro- 
ducing those great truths and leading doctrines, which form the 
groundwork upon which the practice of every branch of medical 
science ought to be based, into the last strongholds of ignorance and 
empiricism. 

In entering upon the anatomy and diseases of swine, we may be 
said to take possession of a new and almost untrodden field, one as 
yet scarcely recognized as belonging to any earlier occupants ; and 
here, in the onset, it will be as well to observe that, careful and 
lucid as we shall endeavor to make our descriptions, we should only 
mislead the agriculturist or grazier if we were to encourage him to 
believe that they will enable him wholly to dispense with a veteri- 
nary surgeon. Far from it; we would rather persuade him to seek 
at once the assistance of the well-educated and scientific practi- 
tioner, who, from close study, practical experience, and surgical 
skill, is qualified sucessfully to grapple with the most obscure and 
fatal diseases. We would enable him to assist the veterinary surgeon 
in his often arduous task, by giving him that information as to the 
previous symptoms, habits, &;c., of the patient, which can alone 
enable him to proceed with certainty, and will tend to save the life 
of many a valuable animal ; and, lastly, we would warn him against 
empirics. 

Swine, from having been, until very lately, considered as a subor- 
dinate species of stock, havo not yet, to any extent, become sharers 
m the benefits which an improved system of agriculture, and th« 



AN■ATO^tY OF THE HOG. 



103 



present advancing state of veterinary scieno, has conferred upon 
other domesticated animals. When any thing goes wrono- in tlie 
piggery, the farmer too often, instead of exercising that shrewd sense 
which he turns to so good an account in almost every other instance, 
either sends for the butcher, or consigns the sick tenants of the sty 
to the care of an ignorant " pig-doctor," whose whole pretensions 
to leech-craft rest on the possession of some antiquated recipe, which 
he uses indiscriminately as a grand panacea for "all the ills swine's 
flesh is heir to," or on the traditionary lore he inherits from some 
ancestor famous in his day for certain real or supposed wondrous 
cures. The treatment adopted in such a case is usually of a very 
summary nature : a drench is administered, the principal ingrcd 
ents of which consist in whatever abominations happen to come to 
hand first when this learned practitioner is summoned. The un 
lucky patient's tail is next cut off, or he is bled " between the 
claws," and the " doctor," after some learned clinical remarks to the 
bystanders, swallows the customary mug of beer, and leaves his 
patient to contend with his disease and the remedy, one or the other 
of which in most cases speedily brings the matter to a conclusion, 
unless, with all the obstinacy inherent in a pig's nature, he lives on 
in spite of both. 




SKELETON OF THE PIG. 



THE HEiD. 



A Maxilla interior, vei poatorior — lower D. Maxilla suporior, vcl anterior — nppcr jsiw 

jaw. E. Os frontis— Iho frontal bone. 

B Denies — the teeth. F. Orbiculus— the orbit or socket of the eye. 

G. Os occipitis— the occipital bote 



C Ossa naai— the nasal bone* 



101 THE HOG. 

THE TRUNK. 

H. Atlis — the first verte I a of the neck. J. VertebrtE dorsi, vel dorsaies—4he vertebrae 

of the back. 
I Vertebrae colli, vel ce vicales — the verte- K. Vertebrfe lumborum, vel lumbales— the ver 
bree of the neck. tebrce of the loins. 

L. Ossa coccygis — the bones of the tail. 

FORE EXTREMITY. 

a. Scapula — the shoulder blade. f. Os naviculare — the navicular bone. 

b. Humerus — the round shoulder-bone. g. g. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis — the first and 

c. 8ternuni — the breast bone. second bones of the fool 

d. Ulna— the elbow. h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis — the bones of the 

e. Radius - the bone of the fore arm. hoof. 

HIND EXTREMITY. 

t. i. Pelvis (ossa innonninata)the haunch bones, n. n. Os naviculare — the navicular bone. 
j.j. Os femoris— the lliighbone. o.o. Digiti, vel phalanges (ossa pedis) — the 

k. k. Patella — the slifie bone. first digits of the foot. 

I. I. Tibia — the upper bone of the leg p. p Digiii, vel phal-anges (ossa pedis) the se- 

m. m. Tarsus, (one of which is the (N) os cond digits of the foot, 

calcis) — the hock bones. 

THE SKULL AND SNOUT. 

As the skull of the hog differs in many respects from that of the 
horse, ox, sheep, or dog, we shall now proceed to notice those points 
of difference. 

From the point of the occiput to the tip of the nasal bone the 
profile presents an almost unbroken sloping line. The position of 
the orbit of the eye is lateral, giving to the animal a side, rather 
than a forward range of vision. The space occupied by the orbital 
processes of the frontal bone in the ox and horse, is in the hog sup- 
plied by a cartilage. The frontal bones unite together early, and 
the parietals appear to form but one piece. The frontal sinuses 
proceed to the occiput, and are only separated from each other by 
some longitudinal or somewhat oblique bony layers which do not 
entirely intercept communication : these and the sphenoidal sinuses 
render the cerebral cavity narrow, in fact the size of it is only half 
that of the cranium viewed from the exterior. The ethmoid and 
turbinated bones are larger and more fully developed in the hog 
than in the ox or sheep, in fact they occupy an intermediate grade 
between those of the horse and dog, being larger than those of the 
former, and smaller than those of the latter; they are spiral, com- 
plicated, cellular, and offer an extensive surface for the expansion of 
the olfactory nerve ; the ethmoidal fosset is very much sunk, of 
moderate size, divided by a very salient crest, and riddled with nu« 
merous holes. 

The nasal bones of the hog are situated low down in the face, 
flattened, and well adapted to the situation and wants of the animal. 
They are attached to the frontals in a slightly curved direction across 
the face, by a strong denticulated suture. All communication be 
Iweon them and the lachrymal bones is cut off* by the interpositioD 



SKULL AND SNOUT. 105 

of a projection of the frontals on either side ; the suture between 
them and the superior maxiUary is mortised ; the anterior maxillary 
sends up a broad deep process more than half the length of the 
nasal bones, and the suture here is exceedingly strong. T'he bony 
nasal opening is but small, not one-sixth of the size of that of the 
sheep, and the apices of the bone form one sharp but rapidly widen- 
ing p(^int, which is carried forward to the anterior extremity of the 
maxillary. The suture between the nasals themselves is often so 
intricate, that before the animal is two years old, the upper part of ' 
it is perfectly obliterated, and the nasal cavity appears as if only 
covered by one bone. A very slight comparison of the face of this 
animal with that of any other will prove that strength is the object 
here in view ; strength towards the inferior part of the bone. In 
point of fact the snout of the hog is his spade, with which, in his 
natural state, he digs and grubs in the ground for roots, earth-nuts, 
worms, &c. And to render his implement more perfect, an extra 
bone is added to the nasal bone. This one is short and trificial 
and placed directly before the nasal bones, with which, and with 
the edges of the anterior maxillary, it is connected by strong 
ligaments, cartilages, and muscles. This bone has been termed the 
spade-hone^ snout-bone, and by some MTiters, the vomer, fi-om its 
supposed resemblance to a ploughshare. By it and its cartilagi- 
nous attachment is the snout rendered strong as well as. flexible, 
and far more efficient than it could otherwise be ; and the hog 
often contrives to give both farmers and gardeners very unplea- 
sant proofs of its efficiency, by ploughing up deep furrows in newly- 
sown fields, and grubbing up the soil in all directions in search 
of his living and dead food. 

The palatine bones constitute the crescentic and posterior border 
of the palate and nasal cavity ; they do not advance further than 
just before the last molar tooth, instead of occupying a considerable 
portion of the palate. The palatine processes consist merely of 
bony laminas. 

As roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food of 
the hog, his face terminates in a strong muscular snout, insensible 
at the extremity, and perfectly adapted for turning up the soil. 
There is a large plexus of nerves proceeding down each side of the 
nose, and ramifying over the nostril, and in these doubtless reside 
that peculiar power which enables the hog to detect his food though 
buried some inches below the surface of the ground. The olfactory 
nerve, too, is large, and occupies a middle rank between that of the 
herbivorous and carnivorous animals; it is comparatively larger 
than that of the ox : indeed few animals, with the exception of the 
dog, are gifted with a more acute sense of smell than the hog. We 
have already spoken of the sow which was taught to hunt partridges, 
and proved as sure a finder and as stanch a backer as any poiiitci 

5* 



106 THE HOG. 

ever bred. To the acute sense of the hog are epicures indebted foi 
the truffles whi(;h form such a delicious sauce, for they are the actual 
finders. A pig is turned into a field and suflfered to pursue his own 
course and watched. He stops and begins to grub up the earth, the 
rnan hurries up, drives him away, and secures the truffle, win :ii is 
invariably growing under that spot, and the poor pig goes oflT to 
sniff out another, and another, only now and then beino- allowed bv 
way of encouragement to reap the fruits of his research. And how 
many a school-boy has by watching a hog along the hedge sides, and 
driven him away just as he began to dig, secured a fine juicy earth- 
nut ! 

The muscles, too, of the snout of the hog require some notice. 
According to Cuvier, there are four principal muscles proceeding to 
it ; the superior of these proceeds from the lachrymal bone, which 
occupies a rather large rhomboidal space upon the cheek, and its 
tendon bears upon the snout, but does not approach sufficiently 
near it to unite with it. The next two are situated immediately 
beneath, and proceed from the maxillary bone ; these are partially 
united, but their tendons pass on separately, one on the one side, and 
one on the other of the extremity of the snout ; and the fourth and 
smallest passes obliquely beneath the tendons of the others, from 
the nasal bone towards the insertion of the second and third muscles. 
These longitudinal muscles are enveloped in annular fibres, which 
appear to be a continuation of the orbicularis of the lips, and give 
to the snout its extreme flexibility. 

THE TEETH. 

The hog has fourteen molar teeth in each jaw ; six incisors and 
two canines ; these latter are curved upwards, and commonly denomi- 
nated tushes. The molar teeth are all slightly different in structure, 
and increase in size from first to last ; they bear no slight resem- 
blance to those of the human being. The incisors are so fantastic in 
form as to baffle description, and their destined functions are by no 
means clear. Those in the lower jaw are long, round, and nearly 
straight; of those in the upper jaw four closely resemble the corre- 
sponding teeth in the horse, while the two corner incisors bear some- 
thing of the Jleur de lis shape of those of the dog. These latter are 
placed so near to the tushes as often to obstruct their growth, and 
it is sometimes necessary to draw them, in order to relieve the ani- 
mal and enable him to feed. 

It Is seldom that it becomes necessary to ascertain the age of the 
hog by inspecting his teeth, nor is it by any means an easy task to 
do so, but still it may occasionally be interesting, and, with refer- 
ence to those intended for breeding, important to be able to do so 
wlien necessary. 



THE BRAIX. 107 

The calculation of the age of the hog by means of reference^ to 
the mouth, has not yet been carried beyond three years ; no writer 
seems to liave goneVuch beyond the protrusion of the adult middle 
teeth of the lower jaw. 

The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw ; by the 
time he i? three or four months old, he is provided with his mcisive 
miik teeth and the tushes ; the supernumerary molars protrude be- 
tween the fifth and seventh month, as does the first back molar ; the 
second back molar is cut at the age of about ten months, and the 
third generally not until the animal is three years old. The upper 
corner teeth are shed at about six or eight months, and the lower 
ones at about seven, nine, or ten months old, and replaced by the 
permanent ones. The milk tushes are also shed and replaced be- 
tween six and ten months old. The age of twenty months, and from 
that to two years, is denoted by the shedding and replacement of 
the middle incisors, or pincers, in both jaws, and the formation of a 
black circle at the base of each of the tushes. At about two years 
and a half or three yeai's of age, the adult middle teeth in both 
jaws protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded at 
the ends. 

After three years, the age may be computed by the growth of the 
tushes ; at about four years, or rather before, the upper tushes begin 
to raise the lip ; at five they protrude through the lips; at six years 
of age, the tushes of the lower jaw begin to show themselves out 
of the mouth, and assume a spiral form. These acquire a prodigi- 
ous length in old .animals, and particularly in uncastrated boars ; 
and as they increase in size they become curved backwards and out- 
wards, and at length are so crooked as to interfere with the rnotion 
of the jaws to such a degree that it is necessary to cut ofl" these 
projecting teeth, which is done with the file or with nippers. {Traite 
de VAge du Cheval, da Boeuf, du Moutoii, du Chien, et du Cochon, 
par N. F. et J. Girard.) 

THE BRAIN. 

This important organ is not so large as from an external view of 
the cranium we should be led to suppose, the frontal and sphenoidal 
sinuses contracting the liniits of the cranial cavity and rendering^ it 
narrow ; it is, however, considerably larger in proportion to the size 
of the animal than that of the ox or sheep, being about l-500th part 
of the weight of the animal, while that of the ox is only l-800th part, 
and that of the sheep only 1 -750th part. The irregularities of the 
surface, or those prominences and depressions which define the organs 
in phrenology, are more marked in the pig than in the horse, taking 
the size of the animal into consideration, but not so much marked 
as in the dog. 



108 THE HCKJ. 

The brain of the hog, h"kc that of our other domesticated animalsj 
is composed of two substances differing materially in appearance 
and structure; the one is of a pale gray or ashy hue, and termed 
the cortical or cineritious substance^ and the other, from its pulpy- 
nature and from being found deeper in the brain, the medullary 
substance. 

These two distinct component parts of the brain are allowed by 
all scientific men to be intended for the discharge of two distinct 
functions. The mind or reasoning power is supposed to reside in 
the cineritious portion ; and hence the preponderance of that substance 
in the human brain ; w^hile the medullary portion is merely the re- 
cipient of outward impressions upon the senses. There is very little 
difference between the proportions of these two substances in the 
brain of the hog and that of the sheep ; if any thing, the hog has 
more of the cineritious portion than the ox ; a proof, physiologists 
would say, that his reasoning powers or moral faculties are greater. 
We have already endeavored, we know not how successfully, to vindi- 
cate him from the charge of utter stupidity and unteachableness so 
generally brought against him, and pleaded the slight intercourse, com- 
pared with that enjoyed by other animals, which he has with man as 
the cause of it. There are anecdotes enough to prove them possessed 
of memory, attachment, and social qualities ; but at present the sys- 
tem of treatment affords no scope for the development of any but 
mere brute and gluttonous instincts. 

APOPLEXY. 

As this is a disease which is chiefly induced by plethora, laziness, 
want of exercise, high feeding, and such like causes, it is not to be 
wondered at that it is frequent among swine; and in by far the 
majority of cases it is fatal; for either the animal dies suddenly 
without any precursory symptoms, or the progress of the attack is 
so rapid that before help can be obtained or remedies administered 
all is over. Where, however, the apoplexy does not destroy its 
victim in a short space of time, it may be subdued and the animal 
temporarily cured; but only for awhile; it invariably dies soon 
afterwards of inflammation of the brain. Sometimes apoplexy will 
run, like an epidemic, through a whole piggery, and where this is 
the case the causes of it must be diligently sought out and care- 
fully removed. 

The precursory symptoms which prognosticate apoplexy are dull- 
ness, disinclination to move, heaviness of the head, an uncertain and 
staggering gait, wildness and inflammation of the eyes, with apparent 
loss of sight, no appetite, and general numbness. The treatment 
must be prompt and energetic : bleeding from the palate ; Epsom 
salts and sulphur as purgatives ; or emetic tartar dissolved in watcjr 



DISEASES. 109 

to induce vomiting Strict attention to diet will be requisite for 
some time afterwards. No stimulating food should be given • the 
water should be slightly nitrated, and the animal bled at least e'verv 
three months. -^ 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Inflammation both of the substance and of the membranes of the 
brmn is by no means of unfrequent occurrence, and almost invariably 
follows an attack of apoplexy. It is also induced by heating or ex 
citmg or indigestible food, as an over-feed of grains, or new corn 

J ^. .^^,P'^'?^^^o^T symptoms are dullness, redness of the-eves 
and disinclination to move; but as the inflammation becomes niore 
intense the animal runs wildly to and fro, seems blind and uncon- 
scious where he is going, runs against every thing; the pulse is small 
and rapid ; and the breathing slightly accelerated. The first thincr 
to be done is to bleed, from the palate if possible; if not, or if sug 
hcient blood cannot be obtained from there, let incisions be made in 
the ears, and these repeatedly washed with warm water, which ma- 
teriallv increases the bleeding. Magn. suJph. with ginger should be 
given internally as a purgative. Enenms (clysters) have also a 
beneficial eflfect, and then the animal should have repeated cooling 
doses of sulphur. Castor oil and jalap have been given as purga- 
tives ; and the system stimulated by the application of a blister to 
the throat. 

PHRENITIS. 

This is a disease very much resembling the last mentioned, and is 
often called brain-fever or frenzy ; it arises pretty much from the 
same cause ; all excitants of the system, all things which tend to drive 
the blood to the head, will induce it. The symptoms are prostration 
ot strength, blindness, frenzy, and often convulsions. The treatment 
must consist in copious bleedings and strong purgatives, which should 
be followed up by doses of sulphur to keep the bowels open. Croton 
oil with tincture of ginger has been given in extreme cases, and 
with beneficial effects. The d<xse for a moderate-sized animal is 
about two minims of croton oil and one dram of tincfire of ginger. 

spinal cord. 

Next to the diseases of the brain follows a consideration of those 
arising from the spinal cord. This proceeds from the brain to the 
tail, and is divided by a central line on the upper and under rurface 
throughout Its whole extent, farming it into two separate columns, 
each of vWiich has been proved to possess a distinct and separate 
tunetion, the inferior surfaces being connected with voluntary motion 
and the central ones on the upper surface with sensation. ' 



110 THE HOG. 

EPILEPSY. 

The pig occasionally exhibits all the symptoms of epilepsy in 
their most frightful intensity, and whoever has carefully marked the 
habits of swine when not confined to the sty will easily be able to 
account for this; for, obtuse and stupid as it is the custom to deno- 
minate them, there is more excitability and nervousness in these 
animals than in many that have the credit of being more delicately 
organized. Note the manner in which they are afiected by the ap- 
proach of wind or storms — how they run about in a state of highly 
nervous excitement with straw in their mouths ; note the sympathy 
and terror a whole herd will exhibit while one of them is undergo- 
ing the operation of spaying or ringing, how they squeak in concert 
with his cries ; see them at a fair under the irritation of strange 
scenes and noises, and we shall find sufficient indications of a sus- 
ceptibility of impression to account for swine being peculiarly 
subject to epilepsy. 

The prognostics are constant grunting, restlessness, acceleration of 
breathing, pallor of the skin, and a staggering gait. Then the ani- 
mal suddenly falls as if struck by lightning, and for a few moments 
lies perfectly motionless ; after which convulsions come on gradually, 
increasing in intensity until they are fearful to behold; the counte- 
nance is distorted, the neck curved in every direction, and the legs 
alternately drawn up to the body, and extended with momentarily 
increasing rapidity. The eyes protrude, the pupils are distended, 
and the balls roll about. The tongue is protruded and fixed between 
the clenched jaws ; the teeth grind together, foam and saliva flow 
from the mouth. The pulse is wiry and small at first, then hard and 
bounding;, and, as the intensity of the fit decreases, irregular and 
intermittent. Throughout the whole of the fit the animal remains 
perfectly unconscious, and as he recovers gets up, tries to hide him- 
self in the litter or in a corner of the sty, and looks terrified and 
■wild ; then gradually the impression passes away, and he creeps out 
and begins to eat aijain. The seizure of one pig is often but a pre- 
lude to that of the greater number of those contained in the sty. 
The fits often succeed each other rapidly, two or three occurring in 
one day ; and the cries uttered by the animals while in them are 
distressing in the extreme. 

Medical treatment can only be resorted to in the intervals between 
the fits, and is seldom successful. It consists of cold affusions applied 
to the head, bleeding, and energetic purgatives, followed up by low 
diet, perfect quiet, and cooling medicines. The best way of keeping 
the head cool is to tie a [>iece of cloth about it, and then keep this con- 
stantly wet. A very efficient cold lotion for this purpose may bo 
composed of a pint of vinegar to two quarts of water, and one ounce 
of sal avMoniac, Salts and calomel may be given as purgatives. 



PALSY. 11 1 

It is often difficult to determine M-hat are the precise causes of 
epilepsy ; the immediate one is generally some excitant or stimu« 
lant acting on a system predisposed by cerebral inflammation, or by 
inte:-tinal irritation arising from worms, or other sources, to take on 
disease. 

We quote a case communicated by Mr. Cartwright, of Whitchurch, 
to whom we are indebted for much useful information relative to the 
diseases of swine : — 

"In 1825, I saw a pig that was taken ill in the following manner: 
He was a little stupid and dull, and now wandered about th« «<"y 
unconsciously for a few minutes, and then appeared to be quite ^ell ; 
but in a few days after he became worse : he would i .ove forwards 
until he came to one wall, and then retreat backwards until he came 
to the other wall ; and made a gnmting and squealing noise all the 
time the fit w^as on him, which was usually a few minutes, and some- 
times longer ; and he had them every quarter of an hour, and even 
oftener. His fits continued to increase; when he had been thus for 
about five days he began, after so tacking himself, to fall dowai at 
full length, stretch out his legs and tumble about, and appear as if 
dying, and make a shrieking noise as if in great pain, and seem to 
be blind. His pulse was very quick and full during the fits, but 
subsided a great deal when they were over. He ate at iiitervals 
between the fits when food was put to him. He continued in this 
latter bad state for three or four days, and got well in a few days 
after. I gave him salts and calomel during his ilhiess, bled him in 
the tail and ears, and between his claws ; but little blood, I fancy, 
was obtained from all the places ; and I kept his head wet with cold 
water. 

"About the same time a miller in this neighborhood lost five or 
six in a similar way, but I had not an opportunity of opening any 
of them." 

PALSY OR PARALYSIS. 

This is by no means a disease of frequent occurrence in our own 
country. It is treated of by French writers, who attribute it to low, 
marshy situations, bad or damaged food, or the avarice of the pig- 
owner, who, in order to fatten the animals more rapidly, gives them 
highly stimulating food, which irritates the intestinal canal, and 
through it the spinal cord. Eric Viborg, an authority quoted by 
Hurtrel D'Arboval, recommends wholesome food, clean straw, a dose 
of common salt as a purgative, and drenches of common salt and 
gentian. 

But there is a kind of partial palsy which is caused by the pre- 
sence of cysticercuH celluloaa^ a hydatid peculiar to the pig. M. Dupuy 
gives the following case which came under his observation : — 

" Palsy of the hind limbs, with los? both of motion and feeling 



112 ^ THE HOG. 

was observed in a pig; eighteen months old. On carefully examirt 
incj hira after death, the muscles were discolored and softened. 
There were in the psoas muscles numerous cysts inclosing hydatids. 
Other cysts with their parietes, more thickened and fibrous, inhabited 
the muscles surrounding the trochanter, containing likewise hydatids. 
These parasites are also found in the lungs, the liver, and the corti- 
cal substance of the kidneys. 

" Between the internal surface of the cyst and the hydatid was a 
fine white powder, resembling pulverized bones. The spinal marrow 
was softened about the lumbar and sacral regions, and the mem- 
branes were slightly reddened, particularly about the roots of the 
lumbar nerves." 

It is generally the hinder parts of the pig which are paralyzed, 
either wholly or partially ; in the former case the animal is totally 
unable to rise, in the latter he totters in his gait and falls wher 
attempting to walk. Paralysis frequently accompanies chronic dis- 
ease of the digestive organs, and is attended with loss of appetite, 
acceleration of the pulse, and swelling of the tongue. This disease 
is seldom obstinate ; a removal of the predisposing cause, good 
nourishing food, a clean and well-ventilated stv, moderate exercise, 
and gentle purgative or cooling medicine, will generally restore the 
animal to perfect health in a short space of time. 

TETANUS, OR LOCK-JAW. 

This disease, which is commonly denominated Loclced-jaw, is by no 
means an unfrequent malady among pigs. The symptoms are at 
first spasmodic motion of the head and of one or more of the extremi- 
ties, grinding the teeth and rigidity of the jaws. This is soon fol- 
lowed by stitfness of the neck and greater part of the frame, and an 
unnatural upraised position of the head. The castration of young 
pigs will frequently produce this disease, especially if the animal is 
too well fed for a few days after the operation. It also often appears 
among pigs that are driven far to market, especially if when heated 
by travelling or exposure to the sun, they are suffered to roll them- 
selves in ditches or streams, as they will endeavor to do. Bleeding, 
warm baths, lotions, &c., friction with stimulating oils, purgatives if 
they can be got into the mouth, if not, enemas and anodynes are the 
mtjst efficient remedies. But the disease is too often fatal, and runs 
its course very speedily ; if the animal survives the first twelve or 
eighteen hours, some hopes of his eventual recovery may be enter 
tained. 

RABIES. 

Swine are by no means exempt from this frightful disease ; thcr6 
are numerous cases on record in which they have been inoculated by 



RABIES. 113 

the bite of rabid dogs, and Hubner relates a case of inoculation from 
the bite of a rabid fox. The symptoms of rabies in the hog are 
peculiarly interesting at times from the resemblance many of tiiem 
bear to those of the human being. At first there is dullness and 
indisposition, and the pig is continually licking the bitten part. Sub- 
sequently some are exceedingly ferocious, snapping at every body, 
gnawing every thing which comes in their way, dashing themselves 
against walls, or leaping over all obstacles. Others, again, are dull, 
stupid, refuse their food, stagger when they attempt to rise, and are 
paralyzed in the hinder parts. There is no absolute dread of water, 
but evident inability to drink. An animal that we saw w'ent to the 
trough, smelt at the food, and brought his nose nearly in contact 
with it, then started back, trembled violently, and elevated his snout 
high in the air. Once or twice he attempted to take portions of 
meat or vegetable from the wash, but the attempt was alw^ays 
accompanied or followed by universal rigor and shuddering, during 
M hich the food was dropped from the mouth, evidently proving that 
the organs of deglutition were powerfully affected. 

The animal is in a highly nervous state, and the sensibility of the 
skin is so excessive, that even if his mother licks him he screams 
with agony, and buries himself in the litter, uttering shrill squeaks 
on the approach of any one, or springs up into the air if he hears a 
loud noise, and falls down again in convulsions. There is in general 
no great secretion of saliva in these animals, and the delirium which 
characterizes rabies in the dog is rarely seen, or when met with is 
less evident and distinctive. 

And yet this disease has been but little studied in pigs. Mr. Prit- 
chard, V. S., of Wolverhampton, gives the following interesting 
account of some cases he met with : — 

"A rabid dog entered the farm-yard of Mr. George Strongitharm 
of Calderfield, near Walsall, on the 27th of December, 1835, and 
attacked some pigs, which making a considerable noise, arcuised Mr. 
S. and his servants-from their beds, and they proceeded with their 
guns already loaded, discovered him, and succeeded in destroying 
him. Two of the pigs had evidently received wounds in their noses 
from the dog, which soon got well, no curative or preventive measures 
being had recourse to, and without much irritation or swelling taking 
place. After a fortnight had elapsed, nothing outward being observ- 
able in them, they were again turned into the yard to their old com- 
panions. 

"A day or two after, on the entrails of a sheep being thrown to 
the pigs, all came and partook of it except the two that had been 
bitten. One of these was found dead in the litter, with a quantity 
of froth and slaver about his mouth ; the other, in coining out of 
his bed into the air, immediately jumped up on all four legs like the 
bound of a deer, a yard at least fiom the ground, and threw from 



114 THE HOG. 

his mouth a portion of thick slaver and froth. Upoii being again 
placed in the sty he was much convulsed, and made a shrill squeak 
ing noise ; his mouth was filled with saliva, and held continually open, 
nearly half an inch, except M-hen champing his under jaw, which he 
frequently did with considerable twitching of the superficial muscles. 
He refused to eat or drink, gradually got worse, and died on the 
third day. 

"Three weeks after, another of the pigs was taken ill. The symp- 
toms were much the same, llie efiect of water w^as tried, and upon 
being thrown upon him caused him considerable distress, so that he 
leaped into the air and dashed his head against the wall, appearing 
quite delirious. He died on the second day. Not long afterwards 
another pig was attacked, the symptoms being similar to those in 
the former cases, only more violent ; he died twenty-four hours 
afterwards, nothing having been done to disturb him. None of the 
pigs ate or drank any thing after they wei-e first taken ill." 

And the case we are now about to quote was communicated by 
Mr. Heaton, a human surgeon : 

"About May, 1829, while visiting a patient, I was told that in a 
sty at the bottom of the yard there was a mad pig. Thither I 
repaired, when 1 was informed by its owner that the animal had 
been bitten about three weeks before by a strange dog, which had 
passed through the yard, and who was at the time, by those who 
saw it, declared to be mad ; the dog appeared to be greatly alarnied 
and proceeded with swiftness ; it was afterwards seen for the last 
time in some fields at the outskirts of the town. From the state- 
ment of the man it would appear that, on the morning of the day 
previous to that on which I saw" the pig, the animal began to exhibit 
symptoms of great oppression at the prtecordia ; to tnis succeeded 
gradual inal)ility to stand, fearful cries, and general uneasiness 
when disturbed, foaming at the mouth, and a disposition to eat what- 
ever came in the way, &c. At six o'clock in the afternoon of the 
second day I first saw it, covered with sti'aw aiid apparently quiet, 
until the rattling of the sneck of its door seemed to awaken the 
most painful apprehension, and its mental agony seemed almost 
insulFerable. The sense of sight seemed no less acute than that of 
hearing, which \vas manifested by the animal's convulsive efforts to 
hide even its head beneath the straw ; this accomplished, it became 
somewhat tranquil, and was constantly devouring its own litter, ex- 
crement, &c., &c. Its eyes had the suspicious glance of those of a 
phrenetic patient, its breathing was preternaturally quick, and its 
elTorts to stand wholly abortive. In this state it continued two 
hours, when half a pint of train oil was attempted to be poured into 
its mouth, the greater part being wasted, and the animal instantly 
expired. I regret that the approaching night, and the man's desire 
to bury the carcass, restricted the post-mortem examlntition, w^hicb 



RABIES. 115 

merely went to sho*v that upon the division of the costal cartihiges 
the lungs protruded, as if too large for the cavity of the thorax, and, 
being cut into, poured f<^rth a frothy mucus, resembling in color and 
consistence soap lather ; the stomach and duodenum were filled with 
the matters above described to have been eaten, not however im- 
pacted, probably owing to the premature death. I have little doubt 
from the symptoms that, had the examination gone so far, the ves- 
sels of the brain and spinal cord would have been found injected. 
The splash of water certainly caused disquietude ; but, inasmuch as 
noise of any sort produced similar effec*:s, it is doubtful whether 
aversion to fluids existed ; and yet the circumstance of death 
instantly following the oil-draught, would warrant the belief that 
spasms of the muscles of deglutition, with the temporary closure 
of the glottis, occasioned suffocation and death." 

Among all the numerous cases of rabies which we have met with 
in the course of our practice, we have never had the opportunity of 
examining the post-mortem appearances of a rabid pig ; but it seems 
to be generally admitted by those who have done so that there is 
invariably inflammation about the glottis, and very considerable in- 
flammation of the villous coat of the stomach, especially about the 
pylorus, towards the cardia. and on the surface of the two rugae ; in 
some parts the inflammation had almost merged in mortification. 
The stomach is generally filled with every kind of filth and rubbish, 
and the bladder distended with urine. 

The disease generally appears in the third or fourth week after the 
animal has been inoculated, but it has been known to lie dormant for 
two months. 

Incision of the part and the application of the cautery as soon as 
possible after the animal has been bitten, are the only preventive 
means : cure there is none when once this disease has made its ap- 
pearance, and those who rely on the infallible nostrums of some 
learned "pig-doctor," will find themselve-s disappointed ; the symp- 
toms may be alleviated by certain drugs, but rabies is incurable. 

We are not aware that rabies has ever been known to be commu- 
nicated by the bite of a pig, but Julian Palmarius states that he has 
seen horses, cattle, and sheep, become rabid from eating the straw in 
which rabid pigs had lain ; and Dr. Shackmann corroborates the fact. 

it has been a much disputed point whether or not the flesh of ani- 
mals which have died rabid can be eaten with safety. Two eminent 
scientific men in Paris ate of such flesh without experiencing any bad 
cflTects. The carcass of an ox that had been bitten by a rabid dog, 
and had exhibited all the symptoms of rabies, was cut up and sold, 
but it did not appear that any of those who ate of it experienced the 
slightest ir convenience. Again, at the Royal Veterinary School at 
Alford, the tongue of a rabid horse was given to a *k>g ; the animaJ 
devoure'^ it, and lived on in perfect health. 



116 THE HOG. 

But the opposite party bring forward as many aiithenticatea facta 
in support of the contrary opinion, and the one with which we now 
chiefly have to do is narrated bySchenkius: "A tavern-keeper in 
the duchy of Wurtemberg, served up the flesh of a pig that had died 
rabid to sonrie customers who were dining at his inn. All those who 
partook of it were shortly afterwards attacked with rabies." Pierre 
Borel records a very similar case. 

Wc should most strongly urge the prudence of abstaining from the 
flesh of all rabid animals, and not only of abstaining from it our- 
selves, but putting it out of the reach of other animals ; and the best 
way to do this is to bury the carcass six or eight feet underground, 
and cover it carefully and closely up. 

NASAL CATARRH. 

We have already spoken of the formation of the nose or snout 
of the pig, and will now proceed to describe a disease vulgarly called 
the snuffles, or sniffles. It is characterized by defluxion from the 
nose in the first place, and its advance is so gradual as to be almost 
imperceptible. But it gains ground daily — attacks the respiratory 
passages — cough and sneezing come on — there is evident difficulty 
of swallowinir, and the respiration is impeded by the mucus formed. 
After some time the membrane of the nose becomes thickened, the 
nostril swelled and deformed, and the snout drawn on one side. Blood 
is often discharged from the nostril, and when this has been the case 
all the symptoms are abated and the animal seems relieved for 
awhile. But it too frequently happens that this discharge or he- 
morrhage returns again and again, each time in increasing quantities, 
until the strength of the animal becomes so undermined that not- 
withstanding the utmost care and the most nourishing diet, he dies 
of exhaustion, or perhaps, as it may be more properly termed, con- 
sumption. 

This disease, which strongly resembles glanders and distemper, 
is like them hereditary, and may be communicated from either the 
male or female parent. It also results from exposure to damp or 
cold. 

Emetics and tonics are the best means of combating it. A solu- 
tion of sulphate of copper in doses of from three to five grains 
morning and night will sometimes eventually eflect a cure, assisted 
by strict attention to diet and regimen. But in by far the majority 
of cases the disease runs its course and terminates fatally, for it haa 
generally gained the upper hand before much notice is taken of it 

THE LARYNX. 

This instrument of voice consists of five cartilages united to one 
another bv a ligamentous substance, y distinct articulati(>ns, and by 



THE LARY^'X. 117 

u seemingly coinpl cated but really simple muscular apparatus. In 
form it is an irregular oblong tube, exceedingly flexible, and capable 
of adapting itself to all the natural or morbid changes of the respi- 
ratory process, and to the production of all the various intonations 
of sound or voice by which the animal expresses his emotions. It is 
placed at the top of the windpipe, guards the exit from the lungs, and 
prevents the passage of food into the respiratory canals. 

The Ericoid cartilage constitutes the base and support of this 
organ, and serves in great measure as a bond of union to the rest. 

Placed above and resting upon this are the Arytenoid cartilages^ 
prolongations of which rest upon the Chorda; vocalcs, and influence 
their action. The vocal ligaments take an oblique direction across 
the larynx in the pig instead of a straight one, so that the angle is 
at a considerable distance from the thyroid cartilage. They have 
also a curious slanting direction, the anterior angle being depressed 
and the arytenoid portion elevated. About the middle of the 
chordai vocaies, and immediately above them, are two sacculi, which 
are generally supposed to be concerned in the act of grunting. From 
the anterior parts of the larynx springs the epiglottis, a heart-shaped 
cartilage placed at the extremity of the opening into the windpipe, 
with its back opposed to the pharynx ; its use is this : food passing 
from the pharynx in its way to the oesophagus presses down the 
epiglottis, which, closing the aperture of the larynx, prevents any 
portion of the food from entering it. As soon as the food has passed, 
the elasticity of the epiglottis, assisted by that of the membrane at 
its base, and still more by the power of the hyo-epiglottideus muscle, 
enables that cartilage to rise up and resume its natural position. 

The thyroid cartilage envelops and protects all the rest, and 
shields the lining membrane of the larynx, which vibrates under the 
impulse communicated by the passage of the air, and gives the tone 
or voice. 

In the larynx of the hog we find that beautiful adaptation of means 
to the end. The space between the arytenoid cartilages is less, 
"comparatively speaking, than in the horse or dog, speed not being 
required in swine. The epiglottis, too, is larger than in the ox, sheep, 
or horse, and differently constructed ; it is more flexible, from the 
cellular ligamentous substance at the base (>f it being looser; and 
from its increased size, and the curved direction of its edges, it not 
only covers the opening into the windpipe, but in a manner embraces 
the arytenoid cartilages when pressed down by the passage of food, 
a tbrmation admirably suited to an animal who is constantly plunging 
his nose and muzzle into the mud or dirt, and who, by blowing into 
his food in the peculiar way pigs are apt to do in order to stir up the 
sediment, would otherwise be constantly getting some irritating and 
noxious matters into his windpipe. The inferior cornu of the thy. 
roid bone is comparatively more developed in the hog thar. in other 
domesticated animals. 



118 THE HOG. 

THE I'HARYNX. 

The pharynx, to which we just now alluded, is a membranous, 
muscular, funnel-shaped bag, extending from the root of the tongue 
to the larynx and oesophagus, wide in front and becoming gnidually 
narrower until it terminates in the CEsophagus. Its office is to convey 
the food from the mouth to the upper part of the gullet, and this it 
performs by means of its lining muscles. Properly speaking, we 
ought perhaps to have noticed it when speaking of the digestive 
system, but as we are proceeding from the head to the neck we have 
included it in this division of our subject. 

THE OS HYOIDES. 

This is a body which embraces the thyroid cartilage of the larynx, 
and gives support and protection to it, and also affords attachments 
to the hyo-glossus longus muscle, or that which draws the tongue into 
the mouth ; the hrev'is^ which fulfils a similar office ; the hyo-pliaryn- 
geus, which dilates the pharynx ; the anterior constrictor pharyngeus^ 
which contracts the pharynx, and several others. 

This bone in the human being is supposed to resemble the Greek 
letter upsilon ; in the horse it may be compared to a spur, but in 
the swine it is different. This animal requires a freer use of the 
tongue. The shorter cornua are stronger than in the horse, or even 
the ox and dog; the central one is less developed, and the longer 
cornua is thin and insignificant. There is also considerably less liga- 
ment interposed between this bone and the thyroid cartilage, which 
it almost closely embraces. We will now proceed to a considera- 
tion of the diseases of the throat and neck. 

STRANGLES OR QUINSY. 

These diseases are of very frequent occurrence, and as they Jire 
rapid in their progress, generally exceedingly fatal. They cliiefly 
attack fattening hogs. 

The glands under the throat begin to swell, and thus affect not 
only the respiratory organs but the act of swallowing- impeded 
respiration, hoarseness, and debility then supervene ; the pulse 
becomes quick and unequal, the head to a certain extent palsied, the 
neck swells, tumefies, and rapidly goes on to gangrene ; the tongue 
hangs from the mouth, and is covered with slaver, and tiie animal 
gradually sinks. In the commencement of the disease very simple 
treatment, as cooling medicines, attention to diet, and care and 
warmth, will often suffice to check it ; but when the swelling, impeded 
respiration, and difficulty of swallowing has come on, recourse must 
be had to more energetic treatment. Bleeding and purgatives are 



STRANGLES. 119 

first indicated ; setons and puncture of the swollen glands have also 
been recommended, and in extreme cases there is no reason why we 
should not have recourse to blisters and external stimulants as 
counter-irritants. 

A diseased animal should never be allowed to remain aomng 
healthy ones, as this malady is so infectious that it may almost be 
regarded as an epizootic. 

Mr. Cartwright, veterinary surgeon, of Whitchurch, who has paid 
much attention to the diseases of swine, gives the following account 
of some fatal cases of inflammation of the glands of the throat in 
the " Veterinarian ;" — He says that he had six pigs attacked at nearly 
the same period. Their respiration was very quick ; they husked 
and foamed at the mouth. They could not bear to be pressed on 
the throat, and swallowed liquids with difficulty. To some of them 
jalap was given, and to others castor and goose oil. One was blis- 
tered under the throat, and all bled by cutting off* their tails. They 
died in the course of eight-and-forty hours from the commencement 
of the disease. 

On examination he found much inflammation under the jaws and 
throat, and also much of swelling with effused serum. In some of 
their windpipes, and the branches of the bronchia, there was a great 
quantity of mucus, but no apparent inflammation. In one the heart 
appeared to be inflamed, but most probably sympathetically. 

Columella thus speaks of these diseases: — "Such swine as have 
swellings of the glands under the throat must be let blood under the 
tongue ; and when it has flowed abundantly, it will be proper that 
their whole mouth be rubbed over with bruised salt and wheat-meal. 
Some think it a more present and effectual remedy when they pour 
into each of them, through a horn, three cupfuls of garvm, or salt- 
fish pickle ; then they bind cloven tallies, or cuttings of fennel-giant 
with a flaxen cord, and hang them about the necks, so that the swell- 
ings shall be touched with the fennel-giant cuttings." 

If we may judge by the writings of the ancients, the most preva- 
lent diseases among pigs were those of the glands of the throat. 
Didymus gives a long and accurate description of them. 

Hurtrel D' Arboval also gives an account of a disease of the glands 
of the throat, which he denominates Foil pique, Jnaladie piqiiante,oi' 
8oie, and states it to be peculiar to swine : he thus describes it : — 

It is situated on one or both sides of the neck, between the jugular 
vein and the tracheal artery. On the part aff*ected is seen a raised 
tuft of hairs, difi'ering from any of the others, being hard, rough, dull, 
and discolored, and exceedingly painful to the touch ; and if one be 
pulled out the skin comes away with it. At first there is only a 
slight depression or concavity of the pait ; but the skin soon becomes 
red, then violet-colored, the hairs conglomerate, the parts become 
Boftened, tumefied, and even proceed to mortification. Meanwhile 



120 THE HOG. 

the animal betrays symptoms of thirst, there is dulness, loss of ap<. 
petite, and grinding of the teeth. As the malady progresses the 
patient becomes inert, deaf, insensible to blows, lies down constantly, 
and totters and flills if compelled to rise ; the flanks heave, the mouth 
is hot and full of slaver, the tongue red and inflamed, the lower jaw 
convulsed, and the conjunctiva injected; the animal utters plaintive 
moans, and if not speedily relieved dies of suflbcation, from the 
effects of the pressure of the tumor upon the air-passages. 

D'Arboval attributes this disease to the irritation caused in some 
of the cutical tissues by the abnormal growth of the tuft of hair, 
which, uniting with some internal sympathetic irritation induced by 
heating food, damp litter, hot ill-ventilated styes, or such like preju- 
dicial influences, acts locally and determines this disease of the 
glands. Other French writers believe it to be epizootic and to arise 
from certain miasmatic influences. 

Tonics, acidulated drinks, warmth, cleanliness, strict attention to 
diet, and the application of actual cautery to the root of the evil — 
the tuft of hair — is the treatment prescribed. 

THE CHEST OR THORAX. 

In the human being this constitutes the superior, and in quadru 
peds the anterior portion of the body ; it is separated from the 
abdomen by the diajyhragm. This latter is of a musculo-inembra- 
nous nature, and is the main agent in respiration ; in its quiescent 
state it presents its convex surface towards the thorax, and its con- 
cavity towards the abdomen. The anterior convexity abuts upon 
the lungs, the posterior concavity is occupied by a portion of the 
abdominal viscera. The diaphragm- of the pig resembles that of the 
ox and sheep. 

The chest is divided into two cavities by a membrane termed the 
media stinvm, which evidently consists of a duplicate of the pleura 
or lining membrane of the thorax. The pleura is a serous membrane 
possessed of little or no sensibility, and acted upon by but few 
nerves. It it smooth and polished ; covers the bony wall of the 
thorax from the spine to the sternum, and from the first rib to the 
diaphragm, and dilating and forming a kind of bag which spreads 
over and contains the whole of the lung. 

The lungs form two distinct bodies, the right being somewhat larger 
than the left one ; they are separated from each other by that folding 
over of the pleura termed the mediastinum, and hence may be said 
to be inclosed in separate bags, or to have distinct pleuras. Each 
lung is subdivided. The right one consists of three unequal lobes, 
the smallest of which is again subdivided into numerous lobules, 
differing in number in different swine. The left lung consists of two 
lobes, a*id the scissure between these is not very deep. 



THE HEART. 121 

Beneath the left iungthe heart is situated and partially inclosed in 
another mem\)ranous bag termed the pericardium^ which cLjsely 
invests, supports, and protects it. The heart has two sides, the one 
devoted to the circulation of the blood through the lungs, and the 
other to its circulation through the frame generally. Each side is 
divided into two compartments, the one above, the other belov^j 
which are termed the auricles and ventricles. The right auricle as 
well as the ventricle is larger than the left, and its parietes are thinner. 
The longitudinal tendinous cords of the ventricle are more firm and 
distinct in the pig than in the ox or sheep, and the fleshy prominences 
shorter. The tendinous cords of the left ventricle are few in num- 
ber, large, and ill defined. The aorta of the pig separates almost 
immediately after its commencement into two trunks, the smaller of 
which leads forwards and gives forth those arter*3s which in other 
animals arise from the (iross of this artery; and the other, which is 
longer in diameter, inclines backwards : these are usiially termed the 
anterior and posterior aorta. 

The beating of the heart may be felt on the left side, whence also 
the pulse may be taken, or frcjm the femoral artery which crosses 
the inside of the thigh in an oblique direction. In swine ki a state 
of health the pulsations are from seventy to eighty in a minute. 



DISEASED VALVES OF THE HEART. 

This appears to be a more common malady than is generally 
suspected, for in repeated cases of sudden death, w^here a post-moi- 
tem examination has been made, there have been found fleshy ex- 
crescences or tumors on the tricuspid valves. We believe Mr. 
Cartwright, whose name we have already mentioned, was one of the 
first persons who drew attention to this disease. The only marked 
precursory symptoms appear to be inappetency and very shortly 
before death difficulty of breathing and evident distress. In one 
pig that died thus suddenly, Mr. Cartwright found several uneven 
watery excrescences, some as large as marbles, growing from the 
edge of the auricula-ventricular valves of the left side ; also several 
small papillary growths, all of which served three parts to close up 
the ventricular opening. 

In another case he found a loose, jagged, watery excrescence grow- 
ing from the whole surface of the tricuspid valves, closing up, in a 
great measure, the ventricular opening, and prc^jecting at least half 
an inch into the left auricle. In a third, the valves of the left auri- 
cle w^ere thickened, schirrous, and presented a ragged uneven sur- 
face. The orifice of the ventricle was almost closed up by this dis- 
eased substance, and a portion had forced its way into the aorta. 
This disease was alwavs found in the left side of the heart, and in 
6 



122 THE HOG. 

no case did it extend beyond the circumference of the valves; the 
lining membrane of the heart always remained intact. 

BRONCHIAL TUBES. 

Swine are very susceptible of bronchitis^ and also liable to worms 
In the bronchia^ both of which affections manifest themselves under 
the form of cough, inappetency, and loss of flesh. The former may 
be subdued by bleeding and cooling medicines, as sulphur, cream of 
tartar, or pulv. antimonialis : the latter almost invariably cause the 
death of the animal from the irritation they create and the iMflam 
mation which is thus set up. 
m-u 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

This disease is perhaps more g:enerally known under the term of 
rising of the lights ; it is one of the most prevalent and too often the 
most fatal of all the maladies that infest the sty. It has been sup- 
posed by some persons to be contagious, by others to be hereditary, 
but there does not appear to be any actual foundation for either of 
these opinions. By far the most probable supposition is, that it arises 
from some atmospheric influences or agencies which create a ten- 
dency to pulmonary affections, and these, acting upon a system 
heated and predisposed to disease by the mode of feeding adopted 
in most piggeries, give a serious and inflammatory character to that 
which would otherwise be merely a simple attack of catarrh; or it 
may arise from some irritating influence in the food itself, or from 
damp, ill- ventilated styes: whatever be its cause, it generally runs 
through the whole piggery when it does make its appearance. The 
prominent indications of disease are loss of appetite, incessant and 
distressing cough, and heaving at the flanks. 

As soon as the first symptoms are perceived, the animal should 
be bled ; the palate perhaps will be the best place in this case to 
take blood from ; purgatives must then be given, but cautiously ; 
Epsom salts and sulphur will be the best, administered in a dose of 
from two to four drachms of each, according to the size of the ani- 
mal. To these may succeed sedative medicines : digitalis, two 
grains, pulv. antimonialis, six grains, nitre, half a drachm, forms a 
very efficient and soothing medicament f<*r moderate-sized pigs, and 
will often produce very satisfactory effects ; cleanliness, warmth, and 
wholesome, cooling, nutritious food, are likewise valuable aids in 
combating this disease. But whatever measures are taken, they 
miist be prompt; for inflammation of the lungs runs its course 
with rapidity and intensity, and, while we pause to consider what *a 
best to be done, saps the vital energies of the patient. 



EPIDEMICS. j 23 



PLE URO-PNEUMONI A. 

This disease often breaks out among pigs as well as horses, cattle, 
and sheep, and commits great devastation. We shall quote some 
accounts of its progress, treatment, and post-mortem appearances 
given by English and foreign veterinarians, hy whom it is classed 
under the head of 

EPIDEMICS. 

M. Saussol narrates that during the summer of 1821 nearly all 
the swine in the neighborhood of Mazamet were attacked by a vio- 
lent and mortal disease that spared neither age nor sex, fat nor lean. 
He rates its ravages at about one-fifth of every four hundred pa- 
tients. 

The first symptoms were inappetency, thirst, dullness, groaning, 
and seeking of moist places; then followed hardness of the belly, 
heat of the skin, constipation, diminution of the urine, difficulty of 
respiration, heaving of the flanks, and short cough ; the eyes were 
full of tears, and the mucous membranes inflamed. AH these 
symptoms came on in the course of twelve hours. If the disease 
continued, the succeeding symptoms were still more alarming ; the 
animals began to stagger about, the limbs were stretched out in an 
unnatural position, rattling in the throat came on, they supported 
themselves against the wall, and only fell to die a few minutes after- 
wards. Death usually came about the third day, and was m som.e 
cases preceded by convulsions of the face and extremities. 

Treabnent. — Copious bleedings from the sacro-coccygean arteries 
and veins, or, if these did not yield blood enough, amputation of the 
tail, hot baths, a seton covered with blistering ointment inserted in 
the chest, camphorated and laxative drenches, and a decoction of 
borage, mallows, and lettuces, slightly acidulated, to drink. 

Causes. — Exposure to the heat of the sun, want of water, feeding 
on dry plants; returning home in the evening exhausted, receiving a 
hearty feed, and being then shut up in ill-ventilated styes without 
drink until morn in a:. 

Preventive treatment. — Troughs of acidulated nitrated water placed 
in the styes and frequently renewed ; non-exposure to the heat of 
ihe day, means of bathing, bleeding, cleanliness, and ventilation; 
moderate feeding, and gentle exercise after the sun had set. These 
precautionary measures, M. Saussol says, arrested the progress of 
the disease. 

Post-mortem appearances. — The thoracic cavity was filled with 
bloody limpid fluid; the lungs much inflamed ;' the pleura thick 
ened, inflamed, and injected ; the diaphragm covered with black 
patches of the size of a shilling; the mucous coat )f the intestines 



124 THE HOG. 

slightly Inflamed; the windpipe and bronchial tubes full of i-eddish 
froth ; the brain covered with reddish serosity. 

The next account we come to gives a description of a somewhat 
different epidemic which occurred in Aveyronand its environs, attack- 
ing both the respiratory and digestive organs, and running its course 
with astonishing vigor and rapidity, frequently sweeping off all the 
inhabitants of a piggery in from twelve to fourteen hours, and in the 
more virulent cases in less than half this time. 

Symptoms. — In the worst cases these are sudden loss of appetite, 
-ismall and frequent pulse, haggard eyes, the conjunctiva inflamed, the 
mouth open, red, and filled with foam, the respiration laborious, 
plaintive cries, convulsions, palsy of the hind limbs, and involuntary 
discharge of highly fetid faeces. Death here is the inevitable termi- 
nation, and that in a short time. But where the progress of the dis- 
ease is less rapid, the symptoms assume a milder form, and medical 
aid is available and often beneficial. Pregnant sows escape the 
attack of this malady, but as soon as they have tarrowed they lose 
this immunity and they and-, their young take it. It also seems to 
spare leprous swine. It appears at all seasons of the year, but is 
most malignant in the summer and at the commencement of autumn 
There can be no doubt as to its contagion, and from some experi- 
ments made, it can be reproduced in other animals by inoculation, 
particular! }■ in sheep. The flesh of pigs that have died of this dis- 
ease has been given to dogs and eaten by them without producing 
any bad effects. 

Causes. — Unwholesome food, ill-ventilated styes, want of attention 
to cleanliness, exposure to heat, wet, or cold, are the predisposing 
causes; and probably some miasmatic influence develops the disease. 

Treatment. — In the most virulent cases almost all modes of treat- 
ment are unsuccessful ; or if they do succeed in rescuing the animal 
from death, he generally falls into a state of marasmus, or becomes 
paralytic. In the milder cases the following means have often proved 
efficient : — Seton in the chest ; a decoction of sorel, with camphor, 
nitre, and calomel, as a drench ; emollient injections, slightly acidu- 
lated ; stimulating frictions of the dorsal and lumbar regions, or 
bathing these parts with hot vinegar ; and water thickened with oat 
or barley-meal as the sole diet and drink. Venesection is here dan- 
gerous, tending only to undermine the strength of th^ patient, this 
disease being evidently one which alters, decomposes, and vitiates 
the blood. Acetate of ammonia, administered in doses proportionate 
to the size of the patient, has been of service. Purgatives should be 
avoided, as they are of very uncertain benefit. Directly an animalis 
attacked he should be removed from the others, and placed in some 
comfortable place. 

Prevention. — Strict attention to diet, cleanliness, ventilation, and 
comfort J and a plentiful supply of clean water, both for the animals 



EPIDEMICS. 12^ 

to drink and to bathe themselves in. In cold and rainy weather 
they nhould be kept in their styes; and during the heat of summer 
their drink should be slightly nitrated, acidulated, or salted. Whey 
is an excellent thing for those that are weakly. Small doses of 
camphor and nitre, with the addition of a few grains of calomel, ad 
ministered in some cooling vegetable decoction, is a useful preventive 
If one pig is attacked he should be removed, and the others taken 
out while the sty is well fumigated. 

^ In 1838 we have accounts of an inflammatory epizootic amon<T 
pigs, rapid and fatal in its course, and attacking by preference store 
pigs rather than those put up to tatten. 

Si/mp-oms. — Prostration of strength, difficulty of breathing, dis. 
charge from the mouth and nostrils, constant cough, and reddish 
hue of the skin. These went on increasing in intensity until death 
put a period to them, which usually occurred in from tln-ee days to 
three days and a-half after the commencement of the attack. 

Treatment. — Bleeding and laxative medicines, stimulating frictions 
of the trachea and parietes of the thorax, seemed to be "the most 
efficient remedies. Doses of tartarlzed antimony and Ilydrarg. Sub. 
Mur. in three grains of each, administered every twelfth horn-, pi-o" 
daced vomiting, and appeared to give ease. Sulphate of magnesia 
relieved those cases in which there was constipation. 

The causes seemed obscure. The epidemic prevailed in the sum- 
mer ; but whether it arose from the warmth of the weather, from 
want of a sufficient supply of water, or from dry and heating' food, 
was not at all evident. 

Paulet has described a very similar epidemic among swine, which 
frequently prevails in one or "the other of the arrondi^sements of the 
south of France. He describes it as highly inflammatory, rapidly 
going on to gangrene, and exceedingly contagious, but is at a loss to 
what cause to attribute it. 

The precursory symptoms are, according to him, restlessness, 
cough, loss of appetite, dullness, and a weak tottering gait. These 
gradually go on increasing in intensity until the seventh or eighth 
day, when they have become very marked. Then alternations' of 
heat and coldness of the body come on ; the ears droop and are cold, 
the head is heavy, and the tongue becomes discolored ; the breath is 
^tid, and there is a copious discharge of mucus from the nostrils. 
The skin is tinged with red, but the hue is not very evident except- 
ing under the belly : the animal appears to be in great suffering, 
and cries out pitifully. This general inflammation of the integu- 
ments rapidly goes on to gangrene, which alteration is evidenced 
by the livid violet hue of the diseased surfaces. Death then rapidly 
follows. 

He, too, prescribes bleeding, and from the ears and veins of tho 
belly, while many authors condemn it as debilitating. The only 



126 THE HOQ. 

thing he recommends besides, is thin oatmeal gruel, acidulated with 
white-wine vinegar ; for he appears to consider the malady to be so 
fatal that medical treatirent avails nothing against it. Here, how- 
ever, we cannot but deem him wrong ; many of the most virulent, 
and, if neglected, fatal of the diseases to which our domesticated 
animals are subject, will yield to the influence of a judicious course 
of treatment, and many a valuable animal has been saved by the 
skill and attention of a veterinary surgeon. We should recommend 
laxative drenches, stimulating frictions, warmth, and cleanliness, and 
a seton in the chest. 

In the epidemic which prevailed in 1841, throughout the greater 
part of England, swine were affected, as well as horses, cattle, and 
sheep, and often took it before any of the rest of the stock, but in 
general had it more mildly. This malady was of a highly contagious, 
inflammatory character, and affected chiefly the mucous and secre- 
tory tissues. When once it entered a fai'm-yard, it spread rapidly, 
until every ox, sheep, or pig was infected, and in some instances it 
passed to the human being. Damp, wet weather appeared most 
favorable to its development; and, from all accounts, it seems to 
have arisen from some atmospheric agency. 

Symptoms. — Lameness of one or more of the feet, accompanied 
with heat around the hoof and lower part of the leg ; discharge of 
saliva from the mouth and nostrils; champing or grinding of the 
lower jaw ; ulceration of the mouth and tongue, extending even to 
the snout ; dullness, inappetency, constipation, rapid emaciation, and 
cough. 

Treatment. — The ulcerated portions of the feet and the detached 
pieces of horn should be carefully pared, and the parts daily washed 
with a solution of blue vitriol, or smeared with warm tar ; the mouths 
also dressed with a strong solution of alum; and from an ounce and 
a half to two ounces of Glauber salts, dissolved in water, and given 
in their food. Where the malady was attacked in its onset, these 
simple remedies sufficed to produce convalescence in from fourteen 
to one-and-twenty days. 

Post-mortem appearances. — There Avere patches of inflammation 
throughout the whole of the intestines, both externally and inter- 
nally ; the liver was sound; the heart flabby and soft; the lungs 
shrivelled, flattened, and diminished to one half their natural size, 
and in some cases hepatized ; the diaphragm, pleura, and bronchial 
tubes of a greenish hue, and evidently gangrenous. 

The flesh of pigs that had died of this epidemic was eaten by 
some persons without their sufliering any ill effects, nevertheless th« 
experiment was hazardous. 



ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH. 127 



CHAPTER YIIL 

ARatomy of the Stomach — Gullet— Intestines — Duodenum — Jejunum — Ileum — Coecam and 
Colon : Diseases to which these parts are liable — Enteritis — Colic — Diarrhoea — Garget of the 
Maw — Anatomy of the Liver and Spleen : Splenitis — Rupture of the Spleen — AI)sorption of 
the Spleen — Perittmeum — Worms — The Bladder and its diseases — Protrusion of the Rectum. 



THE GULLET. 

The gullet, or oesophagus^ is a musculo-mernbranous tube, com- 
mencing at the pharynx, passing down the throat on the left side of 
the windpipe, entering the chest in company with that tube, pene- 
trating through the folds of the diaphragm, and terminating in the 
stomach through an oriftce termed the cardia. 

THE STOMACH. 

The stomach of the hog is a much more simple apparatus than 
that of the ox and sheep ; it is a truly omnivorous one, and beauti- 
fully adapted by its pyramidal appendage and glandular structure, 
as well as by the viflous mucous membrane with which it is lined, 
for the digestion of the heterogeneous food which it is destined to 
receive, being, perhaps, more analogous to that of the horse than to 
any other animal. In form it is globulous. Its large blind cavity 
is very voluminous, and is surmounted in front by a hood-like ap- 
pendage. The narrow long portion which abuts on the pylorus, 
greatly resembles this hood-shaped appendage. On each side of 
the cardia are two transversal folds, and the cardia itself is half way 
between the pylorus and the large cavity. 

The stomach has three coats, — the outermost, or peritoneum, which 
constitutes the common covering of all the intestines; the muscular 
or fibrous coat, which acts upon, and mingles the food, and prepares 
it for digestion ; and the mucous or villous coat, which is peculiarly 
developed in the pig, and into which open the m.ouths of numerous 
little vessels, conveying the gastric juice to the semi-digested food, 
and by its action conveying it into a pultaceous fluid, commonly 
Tailed chyme. 

THE INTESTINES. 

The intestines of the hog bear a st/"onger resemblance to those of 
the human being than we find in an\ other animal. They are six- 
teen times the length of the body of the animal, and the proportions 
of the small intestines to the large, are as three to one. They are 
composed of four coats or layers. The outer or peritoneal cue is 



128 THE HOG. 

formed of that membrane which invests and retains in its proper 
position every portion of the contents of the belly. The second 
layer is muscular, and by its action propels the contents of the 
stomach gradually onwards. The office of the third is to lubricate 
the innermost coat, and for this purpose, it is supplied with nume- 
rous glands surrounded by celhilar tissue. The fourth or lining 
coat is soft, villous, and, in a healthy state, always covered with 
mucus. The food, having been sufficiently converted into chyme 
by the action of the stomachs, is gradually propelled through the 
pyloric orifice by 

THE DUODENUM, 

or first intestine, where it is submitted to the influence of two fluids, 
the one secreted by the pancreas, the other by the liver, and the 
combined action of which separates the nutritit>us from the worthless 
portion, causing the former to assume the appearance of a thick 
whitish fluid, and the latter that of a yellow pulpy substance. It 
next passes into 

THE JEJUNUM AND ILEUM, 

where it undergoes still further alteration, and whence a considera- 
ble portion of it is taken up by the lacteal vessels which open into 
these two small intestines, and conveyed away to nourish the frame, 
and become mingled with the blood and supply the waste in it. 
These intestines are of equal diameter in the pig throughout their 
"Vi'hole extent, and the termination of the jejunum and commence- 
ment of the ileum is by no means distinctly defined ; the latter is, 
however, longer than the former, and opens into 



THE CCECUM 



with a valvular opening close to the aperture into the colon. The 
coecum is a kind of bag supplied with numerous secretory glands, 
which furnish it with a fluid which once more acts upon those por- 
tions of the digested food which reach it, extracting from them any 
nutritive portions which may chance still to remain. The matter 
having reached the base of this intestine, is returned by the muscu- 
lar action of its coat, and being prevented by the valve from re- 
enterhig the ileum, passes into 



THE COLON, 



the largest of the large intestines, some of the convolutions of which 
equal the stomach in size, while others are as srnall as the small in- 
testines. Here the watery parts of the mass are extracted, and tht 
residuum or hard faecal portion is retained for awhile, and finally 
expelled through the rectum. It will be readily imagined that this conv 



ENTERITIS. 129 

plicatei and beautiful process must occasionally become deranged 
by various causes, and that hence will arise different diseases of 
a more or less serious nature. This is, however, less the case in 
swine than in most of our other domesticated animals, from the 
circumstance of their stomachs and intestines being prepared by the 
softening power of their highly mucous villous lining for the 
reception and digestion of a heterogeneous mass of food, which to 
other animals would be actually poisonous; rendering it evident 
that, although the hog in a state of nature ic i. herbivorous animal, 
he was also destined to become omnivorous for the service of man. 



ENTERITIS. 

This disease consists in inflammation of one or more of the coats 
of the intestines, and is capable of being produced by various irri- 
tating causes, as the foul air of badly ventilated styes, unwholesome 
food, (fee. 

The symptoms are dullness, loss of appetitite, constipation, spasms, 
or convulsions, continued restless motion, either to and fro, or round 
and round, staggering gait, evident symptoms of suffering. 

The most successful treatment is warm baths, dry litter, and gene- 
ral warmth and comfort; and internally, purgatives and enemas. 
Castor oil, calomel, or rhubarb, are the best purgatives for cases of 
this nature, and the enemas should be of an emollient oleaginous 
nature. The diet should be restricted to the simplest and lightest, 
food ; oatmeal, porridge, skim-milk, or whey, are the best things 

COLIC. 

The hog is frequently attacked by this malady, which generally 
arises from unwholesome food, cold, or wet filthy styes ; and is evi- 
denced by restlessness, cries of pain, rolling on the ground, &c. A 
dose of castor oil proportionate to the size of the patient, with per- 
haps a little of ginger in it, and administered in warm milk, will 
generally give speedy relief; or if the first should not, the dose 
must be repeated. Some practitioners recommend Glauber's or 
Epsom salts, but we consider oleaginous purgatives to be best 
adapted for attacks of colic. 

DIARRIKEA. 

This is a disease very common among all our young domesticated 
animals, and one that is also repeatedly met with in older ones ; a 
scanty allowance, or unwholesome food will produce it, as will also 
over feeding, or too nutritious diet It consists in a frequent di* 



130 THE HOG. 

charge of the faecal matter in a thin or slimy state, but not actually 
altered, and arises from inflammation or congestion of the mucous 
lining of the intestines. What we conceive to be an attack of diar- 
rhoea, is often only an effort of nature to throw off some offensive 
matters, and will cease of itself in the course of twenty-four \t .urs, 
but where it goes on for any length of time, it must be taken seri- 
ously in hand, as it will otherwise weaken the animal and impair its 
value. The best remedy for it is the compound commonly called 
calves' cordial, viz : Prepared chalk, one ounce, powdered catechu, 
half an ounce, powdered ginger, two drachms, powdered opium, half 
a drachm, mixed and dissolved in half a pint of peppermint water. 
From half an ounce to an ounce of this mixture, according to the 
size of the animal, should be given twice in the day ; and strict 
attention paid to the diet, which should consist as much as pos- 
sible of dry, farinaceous food. 

GARGET OF THE MAW. 

This is a disorder arising from repletion, and is found alike in 
older animals and in sucking pigs. Its symptoms strongly resemble 
those of colic. The remedies, too, are purgatives. Epsom salts is 
here, perhaps, as good a thing as can be given, in doses of from a 
quarter of an ounce to an ounce. It might as well be termed in- 
digestion, for such it actually is, the stomach being overloaded with 
food. In sucking pigs it usually arises from the coagulation of milk 
in the stomach. 

THE LIVER. 

This organ in swine does not appear to be so subject to disease as 
it is in most of our other domesticated animals ; we have only, 
therefore, to glance at its use and anatomy as we pass. It is smaller 
in swine than in sheep, and larger than we find it in the dog, in ac- 
cordance with that anatomical law, which seems to be in force in all 
animals ; namely, that the size of the liver shall be in inverse pro- 
portion to that of the lungs. It is situated in the anterior part of 
the abdomen, and its upper surface rests against the concavity of 
the diaphragm. Its office is to receive the blood that is returned 
from the intestines, separate from it and secrete the fluid termed 
bile, and then forward the residue of the blood onwards to the 
lungs, where it undergoes the usual aerating process, and becomes 
transmuted into arterial blood. 

The fluid or bile thus secreted, when in a healthy state, and not in 
undue proportion, stimulates the mucous membrane, and increases 
the peristaltic motion of the intestines, excites the secretion of that 
nucus requisite to preserve these parts in a healthy state, hastens 



SPLENITIS. 131 

fhe process of separating the nutritious froni the innutritioua 
pai-ts of the food, and facilitates the escape of the fsecal matters. 
It also acts chemically upon the various substances which are de 
voured by the animal, and is the chief agent in neutralizing the 
acidity which some of these would otherwise create. The liver of 
the pig has four distinct lobes. 

THE SPLEEN. 

In the hog the spleen is very long, and nearly of a uniform 
breadth and thickness throughout its whole extent. It lies on 
the left side of the abdomen, and is attached to the stomach by 
the folds of the epiploon. Its texture is almost like that of a 
sponge in appearance, consisting of innumerable cells of every 
size and form, yet it is firm to the touch. In color it is a dark, 
deep reddish brown. 

There has been much dispute as to the functions and use of this 
organ. Some persons, arguing from its situation, contend that it is 
a powerful agent in the process of digestion ; but this is strongly 
negatived by the fact, that it has been removed from some animals 
which have existed for a considerable time afterwards, without appa- 
rent injury to that function. Others again, and with more proba- 
bility, assume that it has to do with the coloring and conversion of 
the chyle into blood as it passes through the mesentery, where it 
becomes mixed with the red coagulable fluid furnished by the spleen. 
But '^'ith these physiological questions we have at present nothing 
to do : our purpose is simply to consider it with a view to under- 
standing and treating those diseases of which it is not unfrequently 
the seat. Little attention has hitherto been paid to them, probably 
from their symptoms being somewhat obscure ; but nevertheless, 
different morbid affections of the spleen are by no means uncommor 
among the lower domesticated animals. This viscus is often rup- 
tured, distended with blood, inflamed, or softened, from the efl'ects 
of different causes, but chiefly of damp, heat, or foul air. 

SPLENITIS. 

Swine suflTering under this malady are restless and debilitated, 
shun their companions, and bury themselves in the litter. There is 
loss of appetite and excessive thirst, so excessive that they will drink 
up any thing that comes in their way, no matter how filthy. The 
respiration is short; they cough, vomit, grind the teeth, and foam 
at the mouth ; the groin is wrinkled, and of a pale brownish hue, 
and the skin of the throat, chest, and belly, (which latter is hard and 
tucked up,) is tinged with black. 
^ The remedies are copious blood-letting, gentle purgatives, as 
Epsom or Glauber's salts, folloMcd up by cooling medicines. Cold 



132 THE BO(t. 

lotions of vinegar and water, to bathe the parts in the neighborhood 
of the spleen, or a cold shower-bath applied by means of a water- 
ing-pot, are also efficacious in these cases. 

Columella, in his quiet style, thus treats of this disease : — 
"Also the pain of a distempered spleen uses to plague them ; the 
which chiefly happens wnen there chances to be great droughts, and, 
as the Bucolic poem speaks — 

When on all sides the apples scattered lie, 
Each under its own tree ; 

for it is an insatiable cattle the swine, which beyond all measure 
eagerly seek after that which is sweet. They labor and are affected 
in the summer and early autumn with a swelling or growth of the 
spleen, from the which they are relieved if troughs be made of tama- 
rit;ks and butcher s broom, and filled with water, and set before them 
when they are thirsty ; for the medicinal juice of the wood being 
swallowed w^ith the drink, puts a stop to their intestinal swelling." 

The great difficulty here is, how troughs can be made of the 
museus (butcher's broom.) In all probability the true meaning is, 
that the trough should be lined with the branches of this plant ; and 
the tamarisks signifies doubtless the tamaricus e trunco mentioned 
by Pliny, lib. xxiv. 9, where he speaks of canals and troughs being 
made of the tamarix. Translators are given occasionally to maka 
similar mistakes or alterations of text. 

RUPTURE OF THE SPLEEN. 

We quote this case from the " Veterinarian''' for 1841 :— ^ 
"A pig belonging to Mr. Roberts of Whitchurch, died after hav- 
ing only been ill for a day or so, and that unattended by any defi- 
nite symptoms. On post-mortem examination the spleen was found 
to be of about three or four times its natural size, and completely 
congested. In one place there was a small rupture surrounded with 
coagulated blood. All the other viscera were perfectly sound." 

ABSORPTION' OF THE SPLEEN. 

This case is also derived from the same source, and we present it 
to our readers as a testimony of the different forms of disease which 
occur in the spleen of the swine. 

"A fat pig, weighing fifteen score, was killed, and upon cutting it 
up, the spleen was found to be almost entirely absorbed. It was of 
the usual length, but not above half an inch in width or the eighth 
of an inch in thickness in any part, and weighed but seven drachms. 
What there was of it, however, appeared to be perfectly sound, and 
was surrounded by a considerable portion of adepts." 



WORMS IN THE INTESTINES. 133 

PERITONEUM. 

This portion of the contents of the abdomen is compose>5 of 
cellular tissue, and amply supplied with absorbent vessels; its office 
IS to separate the different viscera fi-om each other, to envelop them 
and to attach them to, and support them in their proper position.' 
It IS subject to attacks of inflammation, technically termed 

PERITONITIS, 

thr symptoms of whicli closely resemble those of splenitis; and the 
causes too are very similar, being chiefly improper food, repletion 
or exposure to extremes of temperature. Oleaginous purgatives 
are here the only ones which are admissible, and emollient clysters- 
great attention must also be paid to the diet, and nothing of an 
acrid or indigestible nature given to the animal. This disease is too 
often fatal, gradually wasting away its victim. The post-mortem 
appearances are as follows: the intestines have become so adherent 
to each other that it is scarcely possible to believe that any false 
membranes were ever interposed ; the peritoneal surfaces present 
evidences of inflammation, and are often covered with confluent 
ulcerations resembling those seen in glanders of the horse ; there is 
considerable inflammation of the muscular coat of the intestines, and 
the whole of these parts are thickened and corrugated. 

WORMS IN THE INTESTINES. 

^ These entozoaria are very troublesome in swine, and often exceed 
mgly fatal. The spiroptera strongylina is of the kinds most com- 
mon to the hog, but the ascarides tcenia and echinorhinc are likewise 
often found in considerable numbers. 

The presence of worms may be inferred when the animal eats 
voraciously and yet continues lean and out of condition ; coughs 
runs restlessly about, uttering squeaks of pain, becomes savage' 
snapping at his companions, and destroying all rabbits and poultrv 
that come in his way. The excrements are generally hard and 
high y-colored, the eyes sunken, the animal becomes dailv more 
debilitated, and frequent attacks resembling colic tend still" further 
to weaken him. Too often he dies ; for before these symptoms 
have been noticed the evil has generally attained to suob a height 
as to be beyond the power of medicine ; for these parasites, and the 
ernmorkmc especially, multiply with incredible rapidity. 
^ Drastic purgatives constitute the most efficient means of combat- 
ing worms; but they must be cautiously administered, as they are 
but too apt to dissolve and force away with them the lining mucus 
of the uitestiual ciiuals. Turpentine is exceedingly destrucUve tc 



134 THE HOG. 

worms, and although to many of our domesticated animals a dan. 
geruus medicine, it may be administered with perfect safety to the 
hog. Common salt may be also given with advantage, and should 
be mingled with the food. Nor must it be supposed that because 
no worms are seen to come away from the animal the treatment 
may be discontinued, or that there are none ; hundreds of them die 
in the intestines, and there become digested and decomposed, and 
go through the same processes as the food. 

THE BLADDER. 

This organ seems to be but little subject to disease in swine. 
Its position beneath the rectum and genital organs contained in the 
pelvic cavity protects it in all animals from external injuries; and 
the pig not being exposed to those causes which render the horse 
and dog peculiarly liable to disease of the bladder, namely, speed, 
long and fatiguing exercises, &;c., seems to be comparatively exempt 
from it. 

There is, however, a case narrated in the " Veterinarian," by Mr. 
Reid, V. S., which we shall quote. 

VESICAL CALCULI. 

"A barrow-pig that to the seventh month had manifested perfect 
health, from that period fcW rapidly away (although its appetite re- 
mained unimpaired,) so much so in fact that in two months more it 
was a mere bag of bones, and the owner had it destroyed. He 
attributed this decline to a difficulty in passing its urine, which dis- 
tressed the animal to such a degree tliat every time it wanted to 
stall it quite moaned with pain, rolling upon its back, arising, and 
again posturing itself for stalling, arching its spine, and making vio- 
lent efforts, which too often were ineffectual. At other times, and 
indeed oftenest, he after much straining succeeded in passing a little 
urine, but this was speedily followed by fresh efforts. Occasionally, 
after having rolled about and laid on its back, it obtained relief by a 
flow of urine in a full stream. The urine was at all times perfectly 
clear." 

This account was sufficient to draw Mr. Reid's attention to the 
presence of vesical calculi. He regretted that he had not been called 
in during the life of the animal, that he might have made it the sub- 
ject of operation, and requested permission to examine the carcass. 

The bladder was half full of liinpid urine, in which floated the 
stone. The internal coat of the bladder about the inferior part ex 
hibited slight blushes of inflammation. All around the neck i*; wan 
deeply inflamed, and thence the reddening spread about an inch intcn' 
she urethra. The peritoneum also exhibited a light 'int. 



11^ VERSION OF THE BLADDER — HERNIA. 135 

IKVERRION OF THE BLADDER. 

A SOW littered in the morning and brought forth ten pigs without 
Rny apparent difficulty, and immediately afterwards something re- 
sembling the bladder, and which appeared to be about half full, 
came out. The owner seeing that it did not come away, became 
alarmed and sent for the pig-butcher, who said it was the womb, and 
that it must be put back, which he accordingly endeavored to do, 
and having passed two or three stitches of small twnne across the 
labia to retain the parts, left the animal. Mr. Neale, V. S., of Bur- 
bage, happening to hear of the occurrence, called to see the sow. 
He found the vagina considerably protruded, or at least that there 
was a protrusion of the size of a man's fist, and in a sloughing state 
there. She appeared, however, in good condition, got up without 
apparent pain or difficulty, and was suckling her young well. The 
urine was flowing drop by drop. As the owner declined having 
any thing done to her, Mr. Neale ordered the parts to be bathed 
with a decoction of bark. Four months afterwards she was killed 
for bacon, and weighed 160 lbs. Upon opening her the uterus was 
found to be perfectly healthy, the vagina as clean as possible, and 
the tumor reduced by sloughing to the size of a lemon ; the bladder 
was completely gone. The kidneys were full of white purulent 
matter of about the consistence of cream. The uterus led directly 
from the kidneys to the protruded part, at the inside of which, and 
just below the anus, was a formation of matter about the size of a 
hen's egg. There was not the slightest trace of inflammation in 
any of the surrounding parts. 

PROTRUSION OF THE RECTUM. 

This is an evil of not unfrequent occurrence in swine, arising 
chiefly from obstruction of the intestines. Where the cause is 
simply obstruction, an operation will remedy it; but as the obstruc- 
tion is too frequently attended with rupture of some of the intes- 
tines, it will perhaps be as well to have the animal slaughtered at 
once, especially if it is in tolerably good condition. 

HERNIA. 

There is little doubt but that umbilical and congenital hernia 
arc of frequent occurrence among swine ; but as yet the attention 
devoted to the diseases of these animals has been so slight that 
we dare not venture positively to assert the fact. 



136 THE HOG. 



CHAPTER IX. 



The Slrji and its Diseases — Gangrenous Erysipt^las — Lice—Leprosy — JIange — Measle»^I' 

quamalion of llie Skin. 



THE SKIN. 

The skin of the hog, like that of most other animals, is composed 
of three separate parts or layers. The first or exterior of these ia 
the cuticle or scarf skin, which covers the whole surface of the body 
and protects the more sensitive parts from the injuries which might 
result to them from immediate contact with external agents, it is 
a thin, tough, callous texture, perforated with innumerable holes or 
pores, through which pass the hairs and bristles, and whence exude 
those transpirations by means of which the body throws off all 
vapors injurious to the system. Chemical analysis has proved it 
to be chiefly composed of gelatine, and consequently insoluble in 
water of common temperature. This layer is considerably tougher 
and denser in the hog and other of the pachydermata than it is in 
the horse, ox. and most of our domesticated animals. 

Beneatii this is the rete mucosum, a soft expansion of tissue which 
overspreads, and can with difficulty be separated from the layer below 
it. Its purpose appears to be to protect the terminations of the 
blood-vessels and nerves of the skin, which it in a manner envelops 
or covers. This layer determines the color of the body and of the 
hair. 

The third and undermost part is the cutis vera or true skin, an 
elastic texture composed of innumerable minute fibres crossing each 
other in all directions, fitting closely to every part of the frame, 
yielding by its elasticity to all the motions of the body, and interpos- 
ing its dense, firm structure between the more vital p irts of the 
systetn and external injuries. Innumerable blood-vessels and nerves 
pass through it, and appear upon its surface in the form of papillae; 
it is in fact far more sensitive than the muscles or flesh. 

The skin varies in density in different breeds of swine. In si,me 
of the larore, old breeds it is thick, coarse, tough, and almost as itn- 
penetrable, in comparison, as the hide of a rhinoceros; while 'n 
many of our smaller breeds, and particularly in those which have a 
considerable admixture of Asiatic blood, and in the Chinese pigs 
themselves, it is soft, fine, and delicate, and bears no slight degree 
of resemblance to the skin of the human being. It is not to be 
wondered at, that a structure so delicately organised as the one we 
have been describing should be subject to disease. In the hog it ia 
puculiarlv so; manv of the raost serious maladies to which he is 



GANGRENOUS ERYSIPELAS— LICE. 137 

subject, have their seat in the skin : it were a point well worthy of 
study to inquire into the reason of this fact, but as the present work 
is devoted to practice rather than theory, we must leave it to ablet 
hands, and pass onwards to a consideration of some of the most 
prevalent diseases of the skin in swine. 

GANGRENOUS ERYSIPELAS. 

This disease, which is frequently spoken of by the ancient writers, 
as prevailing to a greater or less extent, and often almost as an epi- 
demic among sheep and swine, is now of rare occurrence. Pouiet 
thus describes the symptoms : — 

"The first of these, which last some five or six days, are uneasi- 
ness, inquietude, depression, loss of appetite, and inertness. About 
the seventh or eighth day these gradually increase in intensity ; the 
limbs totter, the body is alternately hot and cold, the ears droop 
and are ct)ld. the head appears heavy, the tongue is discolored, the 
breath fetid, a thick mucus flow^s from the nostrils, and the whole of 
the skin becomes tinged with an erysipelatous redness, which is 
most evident under the belly ; the animal utters almost incessant 
screams of pain. This inflammatory state of the integuments 
rapidly merges into decided gangrene, and the whole of the diseased 
surface becomes of a livid blue or violet hue. The skin is first 
covered with blisters containing a thin reddish watery fluid ; and 
as these break, the gangj-enous, dark colored scabs are formed. The 
disease is, however, by i o means of so fatal a character in sw^ine, as 
it is in sheep, probably from the former being the stronger animals. 
A little blood should be taken from the ears, once at any rate, and 
the bleeding should be repeated if it appears at all necessary. A 
dose or two of Epsom salts, cooling drinks slightly acidulated, and 
strict attention to diet and cleanliness, are generally all that will be 
requisite. Should the skin appear to be very irritable, a little sweet oil 
may be rubbed over it, or some sulphur made into a kind of oint- 
ment with sweet oil or palm oil ; but local applications are not 
generally requisite." 

Exposure to great heat or cold, or any sudden transition from 
one extreme of temperature to another, are supposed by some 
authors to be the causes of this disease; while others, and we think 
with justice, attribute it to unwholesome or putrid food, and to gene- 
ral iLattention and neglect. 

LICE. 

Pigs, when allowed to wallow in the mire, and to dwell in filth} 
*;tyes, are very apt to engender these disgusting vermin, which eat 
Into the skin and render it scabb*. and ulcerated, and by the irrita 



138 THE HOG. 

tion they keep up, worry and fatigue the animals, and effectually 
prevent them from thriving. Eric Viborg states that these vermin 
sometimes burrow their way into the flesh and come out through 
the eyes, nostrils, or mouth, or have e /en been known to be voided 
in the urine. 

The first step to be taken towards effecting a cure is thoroughly 
to cleanse the skin from every particle of dirt, and to clean out and 
whitewash the styes and put in fresh dry litter. 

Mercurial ointment, turpentine, or tobacco-water, are the most 
efficient agents in the destruction of these unwelcome parasites. A 
little sulphur or Ethiop's mineral and bay-salt may be given inter- 
nally. 

The preventive means are strict attention to cleanliness both in 
the styes and in the animals themselves. Whenever a pig is observed 
to be lousy, which will quickly be perceived by his rubbing himself 
against the gates, trees, and walls, he must be immediately separated 
from his companions, or they too will become infested with lice, if 
they are not already so, 

Parkinson is of opinion that " the cause of vermin infesting ani- 
mals clearly arises, in a general way, from bad feeding, which occa- 
sions weakness of the blood ; for," says he, " if an animal be ever 
so lousy, by giving him strong food for a few days the vermin will 
disappear, probably because the rich blood is poison to them." He 
considers that a free access to water for bathing, and also occasional 
exposure to heavy rain, is not only necessary to the general health 
of swine, but a most excellent preservative against vermin. 



LEPROSY. 

This disease has apparently existed in swine from the remotest 
periods, and Tacitus gives it as his opinion that it was because the 
hog was subject to leprosy that the Jews were forbidden to eat of 
its flesh. It consists in the development of certain vesicles, or whit- 
ish granulations, in all parts and portions of the cellular tissue ; which 
vesicles have been proved to be neither more nor less than a species 
of worms termed the cystkercus cellnlosa^ supposed by some French 
authors to be of the same species as that found in the brain of sheep. 
There are however considerable differences between these two. The 
cysticercus is found in all the cellular tissues and soft parts through- 
out the whole of the body ; in the fat, in the adipose matter, in the 
interstices between the muscles, in the viscera, and, in short, in every 
crevice into which they can insert themselves. The thigh or ham 
has been mentioned by some authors as the principal seat of these 
vesicles, ^ut they are also found on the shoulders, around the jaws, 
along the neck and bellv, and even underneath and around the root 



LEPROSY. 139 

of the tongue, where alone can any outward lesions indicative of lep 
rosy be in general discovered ; and even here they are not constant, 
Dut are chiefly evident in those animals in which the disease has at- 
tained to a great height. The progress of leprosy is very insidious, 
and the eaily symptoms so little marked that a practised eye only 
can detect them. 

In tha onset all that is observable is a certain marked stupidity or 
obstinacy in the animal ; a state of languor and apparent general 
debility ; an evident thickening of the skin ; a slight adhesion of the 
bristles ; a tendency in the hair to fill off, caused by the develop- 
ment of a greater or less quantity of those vesicles of which we have 
spoken, as being scattered in different parts of the fatty tissue, either 
on its surface or in the interstices of the muscles ; under the coats 
of the viscera, or on the sides of the tongue. 

In its successive progress this disease attacks the animal economy 
more or less profoundly without the functions appearing otherwise 
troubled. There is ulceration of the cellular tissue, and even of the 
organs that surround or penetrate it : the animal does not however 
appear to be generally and seriously ill. Far from losing his appe- 
tite, he is occasionally extremely voracious. He does not appear to 
suffer in the lungs ; liis breath is not embarrassed, nor is his voice 
hoarser than usual. 

Such is at least what may be observed to take place when the le- 
prous vesicles are not numerous. It is when they increase in quantity 
and the disease increases that they begin to affect the health of the 
patient. He then becomes indifferent to every thing ; moves about 
slowly ; totters as he walks ; his eyes are dull ; the buccal mem- 
brane is pale, and sometimes strewed with violet spots. The ex- 
pired air is fetid, the breathing slow ; the pulse small and irregular, 
the bristles easily plucked, and sometimes a little blood accompanies 
them. Strength begins to abandon the patient ; he can no longer 
sustain himself on his hind legs ; the posterior part of the trunk be- 
comes paralyzed, the body exhales an unpleasant smell ; the skin is 
thicker, and the cellular tissue is raised in different parts, especially 
about the kernals of the neck. There is swelling about the roots of 
the hair, which often proceeds to ulceration ; the skin comes off in 
patches; large tumors are developed; the teeth are ground con 
vulsively together ; the tongue is dark colored, hot, thickened, and 
covered with slime ; the body swells; the animal utters feeble cries 
of pain, and seldom survives many hours. 

This is a very obstinate disease, probably from its having usually 
taken so great a hold of the system before it is suspected, and nume- 
rous have been the medicaments recommended for it. Antimony, 
sulphur, small and repeated doses of Epsom salts, and general bleed- 
ings, seem to be the course of treatment most likely to be attended 
with success ; and these must be aided by strict attention to dicf 



14:0 THE HOG. 

and cleanliness ; cooling wholesome food alone should be given, and 
water, in which barley-meal has been dissolved. Nothing of a rich 
or heating nature should be allowed to come within reach of the 
animal. As external applications, mercurial ointment may be mode- 
rately applied to the ulcerated parts, or the common mange oint- 
ment composed of sulphur and antimony. 

In all probability the reason why this and many other diseases cf 
swine have hitherto been regarded as incurable, is that men of science, 
educated veterinarians, have as yet given but little of their attention 
to these useful animals, and deemed the stuJy of their diseases and 
of the means of treating them beneath their notice. Nor is the 
owner without his share of blame, for he too often either abandons 
the poor brute to its fate, or calls in the aid of the pig-butcher or 
some ignorant empiric. 

There have been numerous opinions advanced relative to the pre- 
disposing causes of leprosy ; some authors attribute it to exposure 
to the inclemency of the weather, insufficient food, and damp marshy 
localities ; and urge in support of their opinion that the disease was 
much more prevalent and fatal when swine were turned into the 
woods and forests during certain periods of the year to seek their 
own food than it is now when they are comfortably lodged and more 
care devoted to their feeding. Others have attributed it to some 
pernicious qualities in the water which the animals drink, or in the 
food which is given to them ; and with both these parties we are in- 
clined to agree, and to attribute this disease in a great measure to 
vitiation of the blood. 

The wild boar appears to be exempt from it ; nor is leprosy 
known in America, Russia, or Spain, if we may believe the testi- 
mony of various authors and travellers. 

Some have asserted it to be hereditary ; but there are numerous 
facts on record in which some of the progeny of a perfectly healthy 
boar and sow have prtn'ed leprous, while a diseased sow has pro- 
duced sound and healthy young. 

Another question has likewise been much discussed, namely, the 
propriety or safety of eating the flesh of pigs that have died of this 
disease. These animals, however good condition they may appear 
to be in, are rather bloated than fat ; the flesh is soft and flabby, 
and tasteless, and will not keep; the bacon pale in color and want- 
ing consistency. Soup made with such flesh is white, greasy, and 
iiisipid, and has been known to produce vomiting and diarrhoea. We 
are not aware that there are any records of disease or other evil 
resulting from the eating of the flesh of leprous pigs ; nevertheless 
it stands to reason that it cannot be wholesom.:', and should not be 
made use of, for although no immediate ill eff*ects may follow the 
ejiting of it, we cannot tell what insidious evils such vitiated and 
diseased food may engender in the human frafne. 



MANGE. 141 



MANGE. 



This cutaneous affection, which was formerly attributed to want of 
cleanliness, or to some peculiar state of the blood, is now generally 
admitted to arise from the presence of certain minute insects termed 
arari. It is identical with the scab in sheep, and the itch in the human 
being, which also were supposed to arise from corruption of the 
blocd, or acrid humor subsisting in it, or from filthiness, but whicn 
arise from this scabious insect. As far back as the twelfth century 
these acari sca6«et» were described by an Arabian physician; sub- 
sequently they were noticed and described by several German and 
Italian writers, and in 1812 and 1814 Herr Walz, a German veteri- 
narian, and M. Gohier, an eminent French veterinary surgeon, found 
these insects in, and gave drawings of, and described those peculiar 
to, almost all our domesticated animals. 

There is a very interesting translation from a pamphlet by Dr. 
Hertwig, given in the Veterinarian for 1838, in which a detailed 
account of the habits and history of these insects will be found. 

The hog does not appear to suffer so much from mange or 
scab as the horse, sheep, and dog; in swine, the pustules are usually 
chiefly developed under the arm-pits, and on the interior of the 
thighs. They at first consist simply of red spots, vesicles, or 
pimples ; but these gradually become connected together by minute 
burrow?^, or furrows existing beneath the skin, and eventually unite 
in the form of large scabs, which the animal, irritated by the itch- 
ing, rubs into large blotchy sores. 

Where the mange is recent, a tolerably strong decoction of tobacco 
or digitalis, will often prove an eflicacious wash for the diseased 
parts, or a solution of corrosive sublimate ; but if the eruption is of 
lonff stand in<j, and has degenerated into scabs, a solution of arsenic 
in the proportion of one ounce to a gallon of water, or, what is still 
better, sulphur and mercurial ointment in the proportion of an 
ounce of the former to a drachm of the latter, carefully and 
thoroughly rubbed into the skin, must be resorted to. A decoction 
of soot has also been recently discovered by an eminent French 
physician to be exceedingly efficacious in cases of cutaneous disorders. 
Two handfuls of soot are boiled during half an hour in a pint of 
water, the fluid is then strained off, and the lotion when cold used 
'.wo or three times in the day. Creosote has also been used with 
success in the treatment of cutaneous eruptions. If the animal is in 
hijjh condition, blood should be taken, and two or three doses of 
cooling physic given, or sulphur mingled with the food. Strict 
attention must be paid to cleanliness, and the animal kept apart from 
the rest of the herd. Mange is both hereditary and infectious. 
There are numerous instances of its having been communicated from 



142 THE HOG. 

one animal to another of a different species, and even to the human 
being. 

In Austria, if mange appears in the hog within eight days after 
the sale, it is presumed to have existed at the time of the said sale, 
and the animal is returnable to the vendor ; and when it can be 
proved that he was aware of the unsoundness, he not only has to 
return the purchase-money, but also to indemnify the purchaser for 
any loss or inconvenience he may have sustained, besides paying a 
fine equal to one-tenth of tlie value of the animal. 

That the actual disease, namely, the scab and the irritation, arises 
from the presence and proceedings of the acari, there can be no 
shadow of doubt ; but the question is, whence do these acari arise 1 
Are they the product of some morbid state of the skin, arising 
from constitutional derangement, or created by miasma or effluvia? 
We find mange in animals that are fed on too stimulating food, we 
also find it in others that are neglected and badly fed. How can 
these contradictions be reconciled 1 Here is a vast field for scientific 
research and experiment. As every grain of earth, and every drop 
of water, and every particle of air, is peopled with living beinp;s, 
developed by certain causes, it is by no means an improbable theory 
to suppose that the germs of the acari may exist in a dormant state 
in the skin, and only be called into actual life by some of the vitiating 
influences which neglect or mismanagement produces, and once ex- 
isting, they follow the law of every created being, and propagate and 
multiply, and pass from one animal to another either by actual con- 
tact, or by the intermediation of some other substance which both 
had touched. We admit, however, that this is mere theory, and call 
upon our professional brethren to aid us by their researches in our 
endeavors to discover the actual truth. 



MEASLES. 

This is rather a sub-cutaneous than an actual disease of the skin, 
consisting in a multitude of small watery pustules developed be- 
tween the fat and the skin, and indeed scattered throughout the 
cellular tissue and adipose matter. It has, by many, been regarded 
as a milder form of leprosy ;• and so far as our present limited know- 
ledge will allow us to judge, this supposition appears by no means 
an erroneous one. 

The external appearances attending it are the development of red- 
dish patches, somevvhat raised above the surface of the skin, on the 
ffroin. the arm-oits, and the inside of the thio;hs at first, and subse- 
quently on other parts of the body. The attendant symptoms are 
acceleration of the pulse, heat of the skin, cough, discharge from the 
nostrils, loss of appetite, nausea, swelling of the eyelids, feebleness 



DESQUAMATION OF THE SKIN. 113 

of the hinder extremities, and the formation of blackish pustules 
under the tongue : eventually the skin usually comes off in patches. 

The measles in swine is seldom fatal, and will gradually yield to 
the simplest cooling treatment, or even to mere attention to diet, 
temperature, and ventilation. Didymus tells us that Democratea 
prescribed bruised asphodile roots to be mingled with the food given 
to hogs, as an excellent remedy for this disease. It sadly injures the 
quality of the meat, rendering it insipid, flabby, pale, and indisposed 
to take the salt. We should-say that the flesh of measly pigs is posi- 
tively unwholesome, although, perhaps, there are no cases on record 
in which it is proved that bad effects have resulted from the use of it. 

The following was a remedy foi* this disorder used by the ancients : 
"A hog having measles must be put in a sty and kept there three 
days and nights without food. Then take five or six apples, pick 
out the cores and fill up the holes thus made with flour of brimstone ; 
stop up the holes and cast in the apples to the measly hog. Give 
him first one or two, then one or two more, and then, as being hun 
gry he will eat them, give him all. Let him have nothing more to 
eat until the next day, and then serve him so again. Thus use him 
for five or six days, and he will become as well and as wholesome 
as ever." In our opinion it is one very likely to be beneficial. 

It yet remains to be discovered whether measles in swine is an 
epidemic, like that disorder in the human being, or whether it is 
hereditary, or whether, as many suppose, it arises from the develop- 
ment and presence of a variety of the cysticercus. 

DESQUAMATION OF THE SKIN. 

The following singular case, communicated to The Veterinarian^ 
by Mr. J. Sherwood, of Sittingbourn, appears to us not unworthy 
of record here. 

"A few weeks ago the skin became hard on either side about nine 
or ten inches from the spine, and afterwards kept gradually separat- 
ing towards the centre of the spine from the shoulder to the insertion 
of the tail. The bailiff cut off portions from time to time of the 
weight of nearly 10 lbs. in order to make the load with w^hich the 
animal was encumbered the lighter, until the last week, when the 
hog lay down, and after taking his rest with his brethren (for he fed 
and looked as well as the rest, with the exception of the load on his 
back) he got up and left the substance behind him. It consisted of 
the entire skin so far as it had sloughed, wdth about two inches of 
adeps adhering to it in the middle, getting gradually thinner towards 
the sides, and weighing 20 lbs., which, added to the portions before 
removed, made a total of 30 lbs. The hog is now computed to 
weigh 400 lbs. He had not any medicine administered, as he did 
vi-ell the whole of the time." 



J 14 THE HOG. 

CHAPTER X. 

Operations -BleeJIns —Castration — Catching and Holding — Drenching — Ringinf. 

BLEEDING. 

This is a most useful and necessary operation, and one which in 
many diseases is of vital importance. The common and vulgar 
mode of getting blood from the pig is by cutting off portions of the ears 
or tail ; l[)ut these modes of proceeding should only be had recourse 
to when local and instant blood-letting is requisite. The jugular 
veins of swine lie too deep and are too much imbedded in fat to admit 
of their being raised by any ligature about the neck ; it is therefore 
useless to attempt to puncture them — we should only be striking at 
random. Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface 
of the ear, and especially towards its outer edge, may be opened 
without much difficulty : if the ear is turned back on to the poll, one 
or more of them may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit 
of its being puuctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear 
near to the conch ; when the necessary quantity of blood has been 
obtained, the finger may be raised and it will cease to flow. 

The palate veins wh5'3h run on either side of the roof of the mouth 
are also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each side of 
the palate, about half way between the centre of the roof of the 
mouth and the teeth. The flow of blood may be readily stopped by 
means of a pledget of tow and a string, as in the horse. 

M. Gohier, who had considerable practice in bleeding swine, was 
of opinion that the cephalic and sephena veins might be opened 
without any great exertion of skill by any one who possessed a little 
knowledge of anatomy. The lancet should be used somew^hat ob- 
liquely, and a sufficient quantity of blood having been obtained, the 
flow arrested in the usual manner. 

Mr, Cupiss recommends the brachial vein of the fore-leg (com- 
monly called by farriers the plate-\e'm) as a favorable place for 
bleeding. I'his vein runs along the inner side of the fore-leg under 
the skin, and the best place for puncturing it is about an inch above 
the knee, and scarcely half an inch backwards from the radius. No 
danger need be apprehended from cutting two or three times if suf- 
ficient blood cannot be obtained at once. The vein will become 
easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly round the leg just below 
the shoulder. 

Columella tells us " to let blood from the ear," or " strike a vein 
beneath the tail at the distance of two inches from the buttocks, 
where it attains sufficient size for the purpose, and it must first be 



CASTRATION. 145 

beaten with the sprig of a vine ; then, when swelled up )y thf^ 
stroke of this rod, opened with a lancet, and, after enough blood 
has been drawn, the vein must be bcmnd up with the rind of the 
willow or elm-tree." 

This operation should always be performed with the lancet if 
possible : in cases of urgent haste, when no lancet is at hand, a small 
penknife may be used; but the fleam is a dangerous and objection- 
able instrument. 

CASTRATION OR SPAYING. 

This operation is performed on many of our domesticated ani. 
mals, with a view of increasing their docility and usefulness, and on 
others to dispose them to fatten and attain to early maturity ; it 
consists in removing the testicles of the male, and the ovaries, and 
sometimes a more or less considerable portion of the uterus, of the 
female. 

Pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them ; and 
doubtless castration has the required effect, and therefore is less ob- 
jectionable when performed on the pig, than when the horse or dog 
is subjected to it; for at the same time that it increases the quiescent 
qualities of the animal, it diminishes his courage, spirits, and nobler 
attributes, and even affects his form. The tusks of a castrated boar 
r<ever grow like those of the natural animal, but always have a 
dwarfed, stuntr^d appearance. 

If possible, this operation should be performed in the spring oi 
autumn, as the temperature is then more equable, and care should 
be taken that the animal is in perfect health. Those which are fat 
and plethoric should be prepared by bleeding, cooling diet, and quiet. 
Pigs are castrated at all ages, from a fortnight to three, six, and 
eight weeks, and even four months old. There are various modes 
of performing the operation: we will begin by quoting those de- 
scribed by Professor Vatel : — Vatel's Elements de Pathologic Ve- 
terinaire. 

''''Castration by simple division of the spermatic cord. — If the pig 
is not more than six weeks old, an incision is made^at the bottom of 
the scrotum, the testicle pushed out, and the cord cut without any 
precautionary means whatever. But when the animal is older, there 
is reason to fear that hemorrhage to a greater or less extent will 
supervene ; consequently it will be advisable to pass a ligature 
round the cord a little above the spot where the division is intended 
to take place. 

''^Castration hy tearing the cord. — Swine are thus operated on by 

some cutters ; — An assistant holds the pig, pressing the back of the 

animal against his chest and belly, keeping the head elevated, and 

grasping all the four legs together ; or, which is the preferable way, 

7 



146 THE HOG. 

one assistant holds the animal against his chest, while another kneels 
down and secures the four legs. The operator then grasps the scro- 
tum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision across thti base 
of it, opening both divisions of the bag at the same time. Then 
laying down his knife, he presses the testicles out with his finger and 
thumb, grasps them between his teeth and tears them out. He then 
closes the wound by pressing the edges gently together with his 
fingers ; the tearing prevents al'l hemorrhage, and the wound speed- 
ily heals. This mode of operation is sometimes performed on ani- 
mals two and three years old. Some break the spermatic cord 
without tearing it : they twist it, and then pull it gently and firmly 
until it gives way. 

'•'■Castration by sawing or scraping. — Here a portion of the base 
of the scrotum is cut off, the testicles forced out, and the cord sawn 
through by a somewhat serrated but blunt instrument. The h&- 
inorrhage, if any there be, is arrested by introducing ashes into the 
wound. The animal is then dismissed, and nothing further done 
with him. Fromage de Feagre has castrated many pigs of three or 
four months old by dividing the spermatic cord in this way. This 
mode of operating, however, should only be practised on very young 
animals. 

'•'•Castration, hj ligature. — Here a waxed cord is passed as tightly 
as possible round the scrotum above the epididymes, which com- 
pletely stops the circulation, and in a few days the scrotum and tes- 
ticles will drop off. This mode of operating should never be per- 
formed on pigs more than six weeks old, and the spermatic cord 
should always be first of all uncovered." 

We cannot approve of the tearing or gnawing the testicle with 
the teeth ; it is a disgusting practice, and inflicts unnecessary pain 
on the patient : the use of a blunt knife is far preferable, as thh la- 
cerates the part equally as much without so bruising it and render 
ing it painful ; and it is the laceration only we require, in order to 
prevent the subsequent hemorrhage which would occur if the cord 
were simply severed with a sharp instrument. 

The castration by ligature requires great nicety and skill, other- 
wise accidents will occur, and considerable pain and inflammation 
be caused. Too thick a cord, a knot not tied sufl[iciently tight, or 
a portion of the testicle included in the ligature, will prevent the 
success of the operation. 

The most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, i iduced by 
the shock communicated to the nervous system by the torture of 
the operation. 

in spaying the sow the animal is laid upon its left side and 
firmly held by one or two assistants; an inc'sion is then made 
into the flank, the fore-finger of the right hand introduced into it, 
and gently turned about until it encounters ant. hooks hold oi the 



CATCHING AND HOLDING THE PIG. 1^7 

right ovary, A^hich it draws through the opening; a ligature is then 
passed round this one, and the left ovary felt for in like manner. 
The operator then severs otf these two ovaries, either by cutting 
or tearing, and returns the womb and its appurtenances to their 
proper position. This being done, he closes up the womb with two 
or three stitches, sometimes rubs a little oil over it, and releases 
his patient, and all generally goes on well ; for the healing power 
of the pig is very great, as the following fact will testify. 

Mr. Thomson, veterinary surgeon at Beith, N. B., was castrating 
a pig, and while cutting through the peritoneum, one of the assist- 
ants lost his hold, and the animal sprang up. The scalpel was 
plunged deep into the belly, entered one of the convolutions of the 
ileum, and divided one of the guts almost through, besides making 
a wound in the mesentery. Mr. Thomson sewed up the mesentery 
with a fine needle and thread, and restored it to its place, and se- 
cured the side with firm stitches — not, however, 'with much hope of 
seeing his patient recover. But, to his surprise, two days afterwards 
little appeared to be the matter, and in a short time the animal was 
well. 

The after treatment is very simple. The animals should be well 
littered with clean litter, in styes weather-tight and thoroughly ven- 
tilated ; their diet should be attended to ; sour milk or whey, with 
barley-meal, is an excellent thing to give at these times ; it is well 
to confine them for a few days, as they should be prevented from 
getting into cold water or mud until the wound is perfectly healed, 
and also from creeping through hedges or fences. 

The best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks ; indeed, as a 
general axiom, the younger the animal is castrated the better it gets 
over the operation, which is seldom attended by fatal results. Some 
persons, however, have two or three litters from their sows before 
they operate upon them ; where this is the case, the consequences 
are more to be feared, as the parts have become more susceptible, 
and are consequently more liable to take on inflammation. Lisle 
says: — " Where this is done, it is best to spay a sow two or three 
days before her litter of pigs are weaned, because then, if harm 
follows the operation, the young ones will draw off the venom." 

CATCmNG AND HOLDING THE PIO. 

Swine are very diflScult animals to obtain any mastery over, or 
to operate on or examine. Seldom tame or easily handled, they 
are at such periods most unmanageable, kicking, screaming, and 
even biting fiercely. Hurtrel d'Arboval recommends the following 
means of getting hold of them : — " Fasten a double cord to the end 
of a stick, and beneath the stick let there be a running noose in this 



US THE HOQ 

Cord ; tie a piece of bread to the cord and present it to the anima., 
and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper jaw 
in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is fast." 

Another means is to catch one foot in a running noose suspended 
from some place, so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground ; 
or to envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack. 

But, so far as it can be, all coercion should be avoided, for the 
pig is naturally so averse to being handled, that in his sti-uggles he 
will often do himself far more mischief than the disease we seek to 
hivestigate or remedy would effect. 

DRENCHING. 

Here again the observations with which we closed the preceding 
paragraph are applicable, for there are more instances than one on 
record in which the pig has, in his struggles, ruptured some vessel 
and died on the spot, or so injured himself as to bring on inflamma- 
tion and subsequent death. Whenever it is possible, the medicine 
should be mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus cheated 
or coaxed into taking it. Where this cannot be done, the following 
is the best method : — 

Let a man get the head of the animal firmly between his knees, 
without, however, pinching it, while another secures the hinder parts. 
Then let the first take hold of the pig's head from below, raise it a 
little, and incline it slightly towards the right, at the same time 
separating the lips on the left side so as to form a hole into which 
the fluid may be gradually poured, not more being introduced into 
the mouth at a time than can be swallowed at once. Should the 
beast snort or choke, the head must be released for a few moments, 
or he will be in danger of being strangled. 

RINGING. 

The operation of ringing is performed in order to counteract the 
propensity swine have to dig and furrow up the earth. The ring is 
passed through what appears to be a prolongation of the septum, 
between the supplemental, or snout-bone, and the proper nasal. The 
animal is tJius unable to obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout 
with an/ eflect without causing the ring to press so painfully upon 
the part that he is speedily compelled to desist. But the ring is 
apt to break, or it wears out in process of time and has to be re- 
placed. The operation is most painful, and the shrill squeaks of the 
animal undergoing it cause it to be a perfect nuisance to the neigh 
Dorhood. 

John Lawrence gives the following directions concerning thi? 



BREEDING. 149 

opei'ation : " The snouts of pigs should be perforated at weaning, 
time, after they shall have recovered from castration; and it will bo 
necessary to renew the operation as they become of large growth. 
It is too generally neglected at first ; but no pigs, young or old, 
should be suffered to roam at large unrung. It should be ascer- 
tained that the sow's rings are sufficiently strong previously to her 
taking the hog, on account of the risk of abortion from the oper;i- 
tion being renewed while she is in pig. Care must be taken by the 
operator that he go not too close to the bone, and that the ring 
turns easily." 

The far better mode of proceeding is, when the pig is young, to 
cut through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations by 
which the supplementary bone is united to the proper nasals. The 
divided edges of the cartilage will never unite again, and the snout 
always remains powerless. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Breeding : Principles of — Choice of tue Boar and Sow — Best Breeds— Age at which the Sow 
may be used tor Breeilini? — Proper Age tor the Boar to commence at— Period ot' Gestation— 
Fruilfu'ness of Sows — Treaimeni of them during Preg-nancy — Aborlioii — Parluntion— 
Csesarean Operation — Monstrosities — Treatment of the Sows whi !e N"ursiiig — Treatment of 
the young while Sucking — Weaning and after Treatment — Prolific power of Swine. 

We now approach one of the most difficult and important divi- 
sions of our subject — breeding. 

The object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such 
an animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has in view, be 
that ttie consumption of certain matters which could not be other- 
wise so well disposed of; the converting into hams, bacon and' pork ; 
or the raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market. Almost 
all farmers, nay, we might almost say, every cottager who has a bit 
of ground, keep one or more pigs to devour the offal and refuse 
which would otherwise be wasted ; and the farmer finds a sufficiency 
for their keep, while the cottager begs wash and other matters, or 
turns the beast out into the lanes to forage for himself But this is 
a matter totally distinct from " breeding swine." In the former 
case the animal or animals are purchased young, for a small price 
(each person buying as many as he considers he shall have food 
enough for,) and then sold to the butcher when in proper conditior* 
to be killed ; and thus a certain iegree of profit is realised. In the 



\oO THE HOG. 

fatter many contingencies must be taken into calculation, viK., the 
available means of feeding theni ; whether or not that food might 
be more profitably disposed of; the facilities afforded by railways, 
by the vicinity of towiis, or large markets, &c. for disposing of them. 
And the rapid growth of railways is now affording these facilities to 
all parts of the United Kingdom. Formerly the inhabitants of 
remote localities had no means of conveying tlieir swine to a favor- 
able market except the tedious one of driving them, or the expensive 
one of conveying them in carts. 

Agricultural writers seem to be very much divided in their opi 
nions as to the relative advantages of breeding or buying, but all 
allow that the keeping of swine is one of the most profitable parts 
of the business of a farm. Whoever determines upon breeding must 
make up his mind in the first place what is the shape and what the 
qualities he wishes to obtain, and then steadily bear this in mind as 
he pursues his object; not with wavering caprice, now selecting a 
cross of one sort, now one of another, but adhering to a system well 
laid down, and then he will find his efforts attended with success. 
The great desideratum in almost all establishments is an animal that 
will grow rapidly, and attain to the earliest maturity and greatest 
weight in the shortest period, and on the smallest and most econo- 
mical amount of food. 

It is a generally admitted fact in the principles of breeding, that 
the offspring usually inherit the bodily and constitutional qualities 
of one or both parents; and in swine it is the boar whose qualities 
chiefly predominate in the offspring; hence it will be necessary 
most carefully to select the male animal. Thaer, in his admiraV>le 
work, says: — 

CHOICE OF THE BOAR AND SOW. 

"In the breeding of swine, as much as in that of any other live 
stock, it is important to pay great attention not only to the breed, 
but also to the choice of individuals. The sow should produce a 
great number of young ones, and she must be well fed to enable her 
to support them. Some sows bring forth ten, twelve or even fifteen 
pigs at a birth, but eight or nine is the usual number, and sows 
which produce fewer than this must be rejected. It is, however, 
probable that fecundity depends also on the boar ; he should i»:»ere- 
fore be chosen from a race which multiplies quickly. 

" Good one-year bacon-hogs being much in request, we must do 
all we can to obtain a breed well adapted for producing them. 
Swine of such a breed may be known by their long bodies, low 
bellies, and short legs. Long pendulous ears are usually coupled 
with these qualities, and attract purchasers. If, however, as is often 
advisable in large dairies and cheese factories, hogs are to be sold at 



BREEDING. 151 

all seasons to the butchers, great attention must be paid to quickness 
of growth and facility of gaining flesh, so that the animals may 
attain their full growth and be ready for killing before they are a 
year old. This quality is particularly prominent in the Chinese 
and African breeds ; but among our ordinary varieties, hogs are often 
met with which are better adapted for this purpose than for produc- 
ing large quantities of bacon and lard. 

'•' The boar should be selected from a breed well suited to these 
several purposes; he must be sound and free from hereditary blem- 
ishes ; and should be kept separate from the sows till he is about a 
year old, and has finished his growth, or he will begin to leap too 
early. He is usually castrated before completing his third year, 
otherwise his flesh becomes uneatable. If, however, he is of a pecu- 
liarly excellent breed, one which cannot be easily replaced, his flesh 
may be sacrificed for the sake of preserving him for breeding from 
a few years longer. 

"A boar left on the pasture at liberty, with the sows, might 
suffice for thirty or forty of them ; but as he is usually shut up, and 
allowed to leap at stated times only, so that the young ones may 
be born nearly at the same time, it is usual to keep one boar for 
ten or twelve sows. Full-grown boars being often savage, and diffi 
cult to tame, and attacking men and animals, must be deprived of 
their tusks. 

"The sow must be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape, 
sound and free from blemishes and defects. She should have at 
least twelve teats ; for it is observed that each pig selects a teat for 
himself and keeps to it, so that a pig not having one belonging to 
him would be starved. A good sow should produce a great number 
of pigs, all of equal vigor. She must be very careful of them, and 
not crush them by her weight ; above all, she must not be addicted 
to eating the after-birth, and what may often follow^, her own young 
ones. If a sow^ is tainted with these bad habits, or if she has diffi- 
cult labors, or brings forth dead pigs, she must be castrated forth- 
with. It is therefore proper to bring up several young sows at once, 
so as to keep those only which are free from defects. Breeding sows 
and boars should never be raised from defective animals." 

According to Varro and Columella, the ancients considered the dis- 
tinguishing marks of a good boar to be — a small head, short legs, a 
long body, large thighs and neck, and this latter part thickly covered 
with strong erect bristles. 

Our most experienced breeders prefer an animal with a long cylin- 
drical body, small bones, well-developed muscles, a wide chest — 
which denotes strength of constitution, a broad straight back, short 
head and fine snout, brilliant eyes, a short thick neck, broad well- 
developed shoulders, a loose mellow skin, fine bright long hair, and 
few bristles, and small legs and ho«^fs. Some give tl e preference to 



152 THE HOG. 

long flapping ears ; this is the case especially in several of our 
western counties, but experience seems to demonstrate that those 
animals are best which have short, fine, erect ears. The boar should 
always be vigorous and masculine in appearance. 

That quaint old writer Lisle in his " Husbandrie," gives the follow, 
ing advice on this subject — advice more suited to swine " as they 
were," than to the improved breeds which are now so generally re- 
placing the heavy old races, but still worthy of some degree of at- 
tention : — 

" hi all kinds of four-footed beasts, the shape and form of the 
male is chosen with great care, because the progeny is frequently 
more like the father than the mother ; wherefore, in swine-cattle also, 
certain of them must be approved, which are choice and singular for 
the largeness of their whole body, and such as are rather square 
(than those that are long and round), with a hanging-down belly, 
vast buttocks, hut not so long legs and hoofs, of a large and glandu- 
lous neck, with short snouts, and turned upwards; and especially, 
which is more to the purpose, the males must be exceedingly sala- 
cious, and such as are proper for gendering from the age of one year 
till they come to their fourth year; nevertheless, they can also im- 
pregnate the female when they are six months old. Sows of the 
longest size and make are approved, provided they be, in the rest of 
their members, like the boars which have been already described. 

" If the country is cold, and liable to hoar-frost, the herd must be 
chosen of an exceeding hard, thiick, and black bristle. If it be 
temperate, and lie exposed to the sun, the cattle that is smooth and 
has no bristles, or even that which is white, and proper for the mill 
and the bakehouse, may be fed." 

But although the chief care must be bestowed on the selection of 
the male animal, we must not be led to imagine that the female mav 
be chosen at random. One of good form and breed, free from con- 
stitutional defects, and from disease of any kind ; not addicted to 
vice, and especially not to feeding on flesh or carrion, or destroyiiig 
rabbits, or poultry, should be chosen. Also those which produce the 
finest and most numerous progeny should be kept for breeding, es- 
pecially if at the same time they are good nurses ; and the com- 
paratively barren animals spayed and fattened. Sows that have 
very low bellies almost touching the ground, seldom produce large 
or fine litters. A good-sized sow is generally considered more likely 
to prove a good breeder and nurse, and to farrow more easily and 
safely, than a small delicate animal. Few of our domesticated 
animals suff*er so much from being bred in-and-in as sw^ine. Where 
this system is pursued, the number of young ones is decreased at 
every litter, until the sows become, in a manner, barren. As soon as 
the slightest tendency to this degeneracy is observed, the breed 
t^hould be crossed from tin^p. to time, keeping sight, however, whil*^ 



BREEDING. 153 

so doing, of the aim m view. The Chinese and Siamese pigs will 
generally be found to be the best which can be used for this purpose, 
as a single, and even two crosses, with one of these animals, will 
seldom do harm, but often effect considerable improvement. The 
best formed of the progeny resulting from this cross must be 
selected as breeders, and with them the old original stock crossed 
back again. 

"Selection, with judicious and cautious admixture, is the true 
secret of forming and improving the breed," says an old and well- 
established axiom ; and so it is. Repeated and indiscriminate crosses 
are as injurious as an obstinate adherence to one particular breed, 
and as much to be avoided ; and of this most persons seem to be 
fully aware, for a systematic alteration is extending itself throu^^h- 
out all our English breeds of swine ; the large, heavy, coarse breeds 
are almost extinct, and a smaller race of animals — more apt to fatten, 
less expensive to keep, attaining earlier to maturity, and furnishin<T 
a far more delicious and delicate meat — have taken their place. 

It would be useless to point out certain breeds as being the most 
profitable or advantageous, so much depends upon the object for 
which the animals are raised ; and besides, each breeder of any ex- 
perience has in general his own pet stock breed, frequently one that 
has been " made," if we may be allowed the expression, by himself 
or his progenitors. This will be found to be the casein alTgreat pig- 
breeding localities, and it frequently happens that the actual stock 
from which some of the present choicest races of swine sprang can- 
not be traced farther back than some ancestor or ancestress cele- 
brated for the number of prizes he or she, or their immediate descen- 
dants, have won. At least we have found this to be the case in 
almost every instance in which we have endeavored to ai-rive at a 
knowledge of the actual parent stock of some of the most perfect 
and valuable animals we have met with or heard of The Berk- 
shire, the Improved Essex, and the New Suffolk and Bedfordshire 
breeds may, however, with the Chinese and Neapolitan, be instanced 
as the best stocks from which to raise a small-boned, thriving, profit- 
able race, adapted for almost every purpose. 

A sow is capable of conceiving at the age of from seven to ten 
months, but it is always better not to let her commence breeding too 
early, as it tends to weaken her when she does. From ten to twelve 
months old will be about the best age. Thaer says, "Sows are al- 
most always in heat until they have received the boar; this state 
commences even as early as at the age of four or five months, but 
they are usually a year old before they are allowed to be put to the 
boar." 

The boar should be at least a twelvemonth old before he is em. 
ployed for the purpose of propagating his species, and during that 
time should have been well and reg^ilarly fed and exercised. " On 
7* 



164: * THE HOG. 

boar may be allowed to serve from six to ten sows, but on nc account 
more. The best plan is to shut up the boar and sow in a sty to- 
gether ; for when turned in among several females, he is apt to 
'• ride" them so often, that he exhausts himself without effect. 

The period of gestation averages from seventeen to twenty u t^eks, 
according to the age, constitution, &c., of the mother; young or 
■weakly sows farrow earlier than those of more mature age or 
stronger constitutions. It is commonly asserted that three months, 
three weeks, and three days, is the period of gestation ; but, from 
M. Tessier's observations on twenty-five sows, it appears that it va- 
ries from 100 to 123 da^-s. 

A good breeding sow will produce two if not three litters in a 
vear, but two should be the outside number : for where she is suf- 
fered to have more, the pigs are not so fine or so many in number, 
nor can she suckle them so well. How many years they would con- 
tinue to breed is scarcely known, as it is generally considered to be 
most advantageous to spay them in their second, or at any rate early 
in their third year, and then fatten thdm for the butcher, especially 
where there is always a stock of young sows to replace them ; for 
after the just-mentioned period the litters are seldom so fine, and the 
animal herself deteriorates in value. Some breeders, indeed, only 
suffer a young sow to have one litter, and then immediately spay 
and fatten her, as the bacon is then supposed to be equally as good 
as that of an animal spayed in the very onset. This is mainly a 
question of choice or economy. An agricultural author of some re- 
pute states that " a sow is fit for pigging up to her seventh year, and 
many will continue to be so even longer. The more prolific, how- 
ever, the animal is, the sooner does she grow old and her fruitfulness 
decay." 

But they doubtless would go on farrowing for many years, for 
there are instances on record of sows that have produced as many 
as eight or ten pigs at a litter when in their eighth and tenth years. 
Selbourne, in his "Natural History," gives an account of a half-bred 
bantam sow, kept by a friend of his, more from curiosity than with 
any view to profit, " who was as thick as she was long, and whose 
belly swept on the ground, till she was advanced to her seventeenth 
year ; at which period she showed some tokens of age by the decay 
of her teeth and the decline of her fertility. 

" For about ten years this prolific mother produced two litters in 
the year, of about ten at a time, and once above twenty at a litter; 
but, as there were near double the number of pigs to that of teats, 
many died. From long experience in the world, this female was 
grown very sagacious and artful. When she found occasion to con- 
verse with a boar, she used to open all the intervening gates, and 
march, by herself^ np to a distant farm where orte was kept, and, 
when her purpose was served, wo ild return by Nhe same means 



BREEDING. 155 

A-t the age of about fifteen, her litters began to be reduced to four 
or five; and such a litter she exhibited when in her fixtting-pen. She 
proved, when fat, good bacon, juicy and tender; the rind or sward 
was remarkably thin. At a moderate computation she w^as allowed 
to have been the fi-uitful parent of three hundred pigs — a prodigious 
instance of fecundity in so large a quadruped. She was killed in the 
spring of 1775." 

Although we should by no means advise the keeping of an animal 
to such an age, still, notwithstanding that it is the fashion or custom 
to do otherv\ise, we would advise every breeder never to part with 
a sow while $he cc»ntinues to bring forth a numerous and fine pro- 
geny, which many will do for years, and to be a good nurse; and 
in general these animals become better nurses the oftener they far- 
row : her' value he knows; the value of the young animal that he 
intends should succeed her, has yet to be tested ; and if one of the 
two must be fattened for the butcher, we should decidedly recom- 
mend that it were the untried one. Varro states that we may judge 
of the fruitfulness of a sow from her first litter, the subsequent ones 
being generally all of about the same number. 

A sow that brings forth less than eight pigs at a birth the third or 
fourth time she farrows is worth little as a breeder, the sooner she 
is fattened the better ; but a young sow that produces a great num- 
ber at her first farrowing cannot be too highly valued. 

Whenever it is practicable, it should always be so arranged that 
the animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the latter end of 
the summer or quite the beginning of the autumn. In the former 
case the young pigs will have the run of the early pastures, which 
will be a benefit to them and a saving to their owners ; and there 
will also be more whey, milk, and other dairy produce which can be 
spared for them by the time they are ready to be weaned. And in 
the second case there will be sufficient time for the young to have 
grown and acquired strength before the cold weather comes on, 
which is always very injurious to sucking pigs. 

Martin says : " None of the pochydermata are, as a general rule, 
remarkable for fertility. The elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopo- 
tamus, &;c., appear to produce only a single oflfspring at a birth, and 
that after a long period of gestation ; for example, the gestation of 
the elephant is said to extend to twenty months and eighteen days. 
It is then not until after a considerable lapse of time that she again 
becomes pregnant, and she produces only a single young one. The 
hog-like peccaries produce, according to*^Azara, only two at a birth. 
To this rule the swine is an exception ; it may be that the wild spe- 
cies are less prolific than the ordinary domestic variety of the genus 
sus, yet they are fertile, but in the ordinaiy hog this fertility is at 
a maximum. Ordinarily, a healthy sow produces eight, ten, or 
twelve young ones twice a year. The period of gestation is some 



156 THE HOG. 

what variable: Ciivier says, " quatre mois;" others give it as tnrea 
months, three weeks, and three days ; that is, 108 days. According 
to Mr. Tossier, out of Fifteen sows, one littered in 109 days, and one in 
123 days, the latitude being fourteen days; according to others, the 
range of gestation extends from seventeen weeks, or 119 days, to 
twenty weeks, or 140 days. According to Desmarest, the wild 
sow goes with young four months and a few days, and produces from 
three to nine at a birth, suckling them from three to four months. 
It would appear, then, from these observations, that the period of 
gestation in the domestic sow varies according to age, constitution, 
food, and the peculiarities or idiosyncrasies of the peculiar breed. 
Young and weakly sows not only produce few^er pigs, but farrow ear 
lier than those of more mature age and sounder constitution; and 
moreover, as might be expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor, 
often indeed puny and feeble. Here, having trenched upon the sub- 
ject, we may advert to the principles upon which the breeding of 
swine should be conducted. Two great objects are in view, fertility 
and early fattening. With respect to fertility, we rather advocate 
moderation than excess, both on account of the strength and 
health of the mother, and the improvement of her progeny from 
a full supply of nutriment. How long a sow should be kept for 
breeding depends on circumstances; generally speaking, however, 
after three or four years the most fruitful sows, exhausted in their 
reproductive energies, evince a great falling off both in the number 
and vigor of their young. There are, however, exceptions. . . . 
. , , Generally speaking, it is most advantageous to allow the 
S(iw to breed only two or three years, and her successors being ready, 
to iatten her off for the knife, 

"A leading principle in breeding this animal, — and it applies equally 
to the horse, the sheep, the ox, the dog, — is to make a cautious selec- 
tion of the male by whom the female is destined to conceive her 
first progeny, for that male stamps a character upon every subse- 
quent produce (whether for good or bad) by other males; ' the sub- 
sequent progeny of the mother will always partake more or less of 
the character of the father of the first offspring.' This law is mys- 
terious, but it has been abundantly proved (See Giles, in Philo^tO' 
phical Transacticns for 1821,) and need not be here further insisted 
on ; the fact is established. The selection of the male, then, is of 
primary importance; of whatever breed he may be, he should be 
as perfect as possible in the good qualities of his race ; he should be 
free from all blemishes, and be, moreover, the offspring of parents 
in all points unexceptionable. A young boar intended for breeding 
from, should be kept separate from the sows until about a year old, 
when his physical energies will be fairly developed. Forn: is of 
more importance than size; in this latter respect the breeds differ, 
as they do also in the size of the ears, which in seme breeds aro 



BREEDING. 157 

fiupping, especially in those which incline to the old stocK. Good 
pigs, it is true, may show such ears, but small sharp erect ears 
accompany what may be called blood. In a well-formed boar the 
Wrrels should be rather long and cylindrical, the limbs should be 
small in the bone, the hoofs neat and compact, the skin should be 
rather loose and mellow, with the bristles fine but scanty ; the snout 
should be short and sharp, the forehead rise boldly between the ears 
and merge into an arched neck ; the back should be straight and 
hroad ; the hams rounded and ample ; the chest should be wide, indi 
cative of the amplitude and vigor of the vital organs. The tail 
should be slender, the eyes should be lively, the terftper or disposi. 
tion cheerful, without moroseness. As to color, some breeds are 
black, others are white ; but we think black pigs are thinner in the 
skin, and are moreover less subject to cutaneous affections. 

" Equal care should be taken in the selection of a breeding sow as 
of a boar; she should be of good stature and form, sound, healthy, 
and free from defects; she should have twelve teats at least; for, as 
may be observed, each little pig selects its own teat, and keeps to it, 
so that a pig not having one belonging to it would in all probabih'ty 
be starved. A sow not pregnant, whose belly hangs low, almost 
touching the ground, seldom produces large litters or fine pigs ; the 
pendulous condition of the abdomen is the result of weakness and 
relaxation from ill-feeding and ill-breeding, neglect, with other causes, 
and is generally accompanied with flat sides, a long snout, and a 
raw-boned, unthrifty carcass, yielding coarse meat, which will not 
repay the outlay of feeding. 

" Early breeding not only weakens the sow, but, as her physical 
powers are not yet fully developed, results in the production of un- 
dersized weakly pigs, and perhaps incomplete as to number; and 
these, perhaps, she will scarcely be able to nourish. A /oung sow 
of good stock, who produces a large litter at her first parturition of 
pigs, all of equal size, and proves a good nurse, is valuable; she 
promises well, for her first litter may be taken as an example of 
1,hose to succeed. As long as such a sow continues to return to the 
breeder such litters twice a year, he will do well to keep her, more 
especially, if he finds upon trial that her progeny fatten kindlv, 
whether as porkers or bacon hogs. Some persons, after obtaining 
-one or two litters from a sow, have her spayed, and then fattened 
off as quickly as possible for bacon. Some keep to their second or 
even third year of breeding ; but if the last litter was pood, and the 
sow continues vigorous, it becomes a question how far it may not 
be more advantageous to keep her still longer, even until the dimi- 
nished number of f igs produced indicates a deline in truitfulness. 

^"Cold sleety weather, with keen winds, is very detrimental to younn^ 
pigs, and not favorable to their mother ; hence, early in the spring, 
and late in the summer or early in the autumn, are the best periods 



158 THE HOG. 

of the year ft r the production of the h'tter. In the spring, the fields 
and paddocks offer fresh grass and various vegetables, and a run upon 
the pastures will be not only a saving to the farmer, but of benefit 
to the young pigs ; besides which, at this season of the year, w'hey 
and buttermilk are abundant, and so continue to be during the greater 
part of summer. An autumnal litter, again, will have sufficient 
time to grow and acquire strength before the severities of mid- 
winter ; besides, the refuse of the potato crop, and the carrot beds, 
of the garden generally, and of the mill, is now at hand in abun- 
dance. 

"A breeding sow should never be overfed ; not that she should be 
starved — on the contrary, she should be kept by a judicious allow- 
ance of food, in good condition and perfect health, but not fat. A 
sow when fat is not likely to be fertile, and, moreover, her parturi- 
tion is sure to be more difficult and dangerous, and her milk in 
insufficient quantity, perhaps even of inferior quality, while her un- 
wieldiness renders her more liable to overlay her young. When 
with pig she should have a commodious and clean sty to herself, and 
be supplied with sufficient straw to render her comfortable. She 
should be sufficiently fed, and all her w^ants supplied. All sources 
of irritation or annoyance should be avoided, and especially as the 
time of parturition approaches. From these causes — sometimes, 
perhaps, from craving hunger — a sow^ will devour her young ; it is 
said also, that if she be allowed to devour the after-birth, a morbid 
appetite, leading her to fall upon her litter, will be engendered. For 
these reasons the sow should be carefully watched and fed, especially 
if the parturition be her first ; and not for these reasons only, but 
lest her parturition should prove dangerous or in any way difficult. 

" On no account should two pregnant sows be placed in one sty, 
however commodious. They will assault each other, and at last, 
perhaps, destroy each other's young. 

"' Selection, with judicious and cautious admixture, is the true 
secret of forming a breed.' It is thus that all our improved breeds 
of domestic animals have been produced, those of the hog not ex 
cepted. Hence the old, coarse, large-boned swine have now almost 
disappeared, and given place to small-boned breeds, apt to fatten, 
mature at an earlier age, affording more delicate meat, less expensive 
to keep, and, therefore, altogether more profitable breeds. Such 
are rapidly extending themselves, and improvements are going on. 
Many landed proprietors pride themselves on the possession of a 
pai'ticular breed of their own establishment, and remarkable for 
good qualities of every kind. In the establishment of such a stock, 
indiscriminate selection, and a repetition of crosses, with no definite 
object, must be avoided ; while, at the same time, a pertinacious 
adherence to the plan of breeding in and in from the same stock, 
hov.ever excellent, will ultimately result in its degeneracy. Com 



BREEDING. 159 

paralively speaking;, it is only within a few years that the improved 
breeds of pigs have risen up to reward the skill of the breeder. The 
Chinese or Siamese, the Neapolitan, and the African varieties have 
greatly contiibuted to their creation, and continue to modify those 
in which a farther cross is desirable. After one or two crosses, the 
best progeny is general)}' selected to inter-breed again with the ori- 
ginal stock, and thus is its improvement effected. Among the nu- 
merous admirable breeds which now exist, it would be difficult to 
say which has the superiority, or which it is most profitable and 
advantageous to rear. As in the case of cattle and sheep, much 
depends on contingent circumstances, on locality, and the kind of 
food most readily obtainable. No doubt each breeder prefers his 
own strain. Berkshire and Essex boast of their respective races ; 
Yorkshire, Suffolk, Sussex, and Bedfordshire put in their claims for 
praise." 

"The following rules for the selection of the best stock of hogs 
will apply to all breeds : — 

^'■Fertility. — The strain from which the farmer or breeder selects 
ought to be noted for fertility. In a breeding sow this quality is 
essential, and it is one which is inherited. Tiie same observation 
applies to other domestic animals. But besides this, she should be 
a careful -mother, and with a sufficient number of dugs for a flimily 
of twelve at a single litter. A young untried sow wilT generally 
display in her tendencies those which have predominated in the rac^ 
from which she has descended, and the number of teats can be 
counted. Both boar and sow should be sound, healthy, and in fair 
but not over fat condition, and the former should be from a stock in 
which fertility is a characteristic. 

" Form. — It may be that the farmer has a breed which he wishes to 
perpetuate ; it is highly improved, and he sees no reason for imme- 
diate crossing. But, on the other hand, he may have an excellent 
breed, with certain defects, as too long in the limb, or too heavy in 
the bone. Here, we should say, the sire to be chosen, whether 
of a pure or cross breed, should exhibit the opposite qualities, even 
to an extreme, and be, withal, one of a strain noted for early and 
rapid fattening. 

" But what is meant by form,^ as applied to a pig 1 A development 
of those points connected with the profit of the owner. In these 
points high or low blood is demonstrated. The head should he small, 
high at the forehead, short and sharp in the snout, with eyes ani 
mated and lively, and thin, sharp, upright ears ; the jowl, or cheek, 
should be deep and full; the neck should be thick and deep, arch 
gracefully from the back of the head, and merge gradually into a 
broad breast; the shoulders should be set well apart at the clavicu- 
lar joint; the body should be deep, round, well-barrelled, with an 
ample chest, broad loin^, and a straight, flat, broad back ; the tail 



160 THE HOG. 

should be slender; the hams should be round, full and well deve 
loped ; the limbs, fine boned, with clean small joints ; and with smail 
compact hoofs, set closely together, with a straight bearing upon the 
ground. If in perfect health, young store hogs, or young sto- k se- 
lected for breeding, will be lively, animated, hold up the head, and 
move freely and nimbly. 

''^Bristle.^. — These should be fine and scanty, so as to show the skin 
smooth and glossy ; coarse, wiry, rough bristles usually accompany 
heavy bones, large spreading hoofs, and flapping ears, and thus be- 
come one of the indications of a thick skinned and low breed. 

" Color. — Diflerent breeds of high excellence have their own co- 
lors : white, black, parti-coloured, black and white, sandy, mottled 
with large marks of black, are the most prevalent. A black skin, 
with short scanty bristles, and small stature, demonstrate the preva- 
lence of the Neapolitan strain, or the black Chinese, or perhaps an 
admixture of both. Many prefer white ; and in sucking pigs des- 
tined for the table, and for porkers, this color has its advantiiges, 
and the skin looks moi-e attractive; nevertheless, we think that the 
skin of black hogs is in general thinner than that of white hogs, and 
less subject to eruptive diseases." — Martin. 



TREATMENT OF SOWS DURING PREGNANCY. 

Sows with pig should be well and judiciously fed ; that is to say, 
they should have a sufficiency of wholesome nutritious food to main- 
tain their strength and keep them in good condition, but should by 
ro means be allowed to get fat, as when they are in high condition 
the dangers of parturition are enhanced, the animal is more awkward 
and liable to smother or crush her young, and besides, never has as 
much or as good milk as a leaner sow. She should also have a 
sepai-ate sty : for swine are prone to lie so close together, that if she 
were amongst others her young would be in great danger; and this 
sty should be perfectly clean and comfortably littered, but not so 
thickly as to admit of the young being able to bury themselves in 
the straw. 

As the time of her fjirrowin-g approaches she should be well sup- 
plied with food, especially if she be a young sow, and this is her 
tirst litter, and also carefully watched in order to prevent her from 
devouring the after-birth, and thus engendering a morbid appetite 
which will next lead her to fall upon her own young. A sow that 
has once done this is never afterwards to be depended upon. Hunger, 
thirst, or irritation of any kind, will often induce this unnatural con- 
duct ; and this is another reason why a sow about to farrow should 
have a sty to herself, and be carefully attended to, and have all hef 
uants Fupplied. 



ABORTION 161 



ABORTION. 



This accident is by no means of so common occurrence in the so\« 
as in many of our other domesticated animals. There are various 
causes which will tend to produce it ; insufficiency of food, eating 
too much succulent vegetable food, or unwholesome unsubstantial 
iViet ; blows and falls will also induce it ; and one very prevalent, 
cause arises from this animal's habit of rubbing itself against hard 
bodies in order to allay the irritation produced by the vermin or cu- 
taneous eruptions to which swine are subject. 

Reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in the 
sow, at least to the extent it does in other animals. 

The symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are similar to 
those of parturition, only niore intense. There is generally rest- 
lessness, ii-ritation, and shiverings : and the cries of the animal tes- 
tify the presence of severe labor-pains. Sometimes the rectum, 
vagina, or uterus becomes relaxed, and one or the other protrudes, 
and often becomes inverted at the moment of the expulsion of the 
foetus, preceded by the placenta, which presents itself foremost. 

Notiiing can be done to prevent abortion at the last hour ; all 
that we can do is, from the first to remove every predisposing cause. 
The treatment will depend upon circumstances. Where the animal 
is young, vigorous, and in high condition, bleeding will be beneficial, 
not a copious blood-letting, but small quantities taken at different 
times ; purgative^ may also be administered. If, when abortion haa 
taken place, the whole of the litter are not born, emollient injections 
may be resorted to with considerable benefit ; otherwise the after 
treatment should be much the same as in parturition, and the ani 
mal should be kept warm, and quiet, and clean, and allowed a cer 
tain degree of liberty. 

Whenever one sow has aborted, the breeder should immediately 
look about for the causes likely to have induced this accident, and 
endeavor, by removing them, to secure the rest of the inhabitants 
of his piggery from a similar fate. 

In cases of abortion, the foetus is seldom born alive, and often has 
been dead for some days; where this is the case — and whether it is 
so or not will be easily detected by a peculiarly unpleasant putrid 
exhalation, and the discharge of a fetid liquid from the vagina — the 
parts should be washed with a diluted solution of chloride of lime, 
in the proportions of one part chloride to three parts water, and a 
portion of this lotioh may be gently injected into the uterus if the 
animal will submit to the doing so. Mild doses of Epsom salts, 
tincture of gentian, and ginger will also act beneficially in sucll 
cases, and with attentioi to diet, soon restore the animal. 



162 THE HOG 

PARTURITION. 

The approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the ini 
meuse size of the belly, by a depression of the back, and by the 
distension of the teats. The animal gives evident symptoms of acute 
suffering, and wanders restlessly about, collecting straw, and carry 
ing it to her sty, grunting piteously the while. 

As soon as this is observed, she should be enticed into a separate 
sty and carefully watched. On no account should several sows be 
permitted to farrow in the same place, as they will inevitably irritate 
each other, and devour their own or one another's young. 

The young ones should be taken av/ay as soon as they are 
born, and deposited in a warm spot, for the sow being a clumsy ani- 
mal, is not unlikely, in her struggles, to overlay them ; nor should 
they be returned to her until all is over, and the afterbirth has been 
removed, which should always be done the moment it passes from 
her : for young sows, especially, will invariably devour the after- 
birth if permitted, and then, the young being wet with a similar 
fluid and smelling the same, will eat them one after another. Some 
persons advise washing the backs of the young pigs with a decoction 
of aloes, colocynth, or some other nauseous substance, as a remedy 
for this; but the simplest and easiest one is to remove the little 
ones until all is over and the mother begins to recover herself and 
seeks about for them, on which they should be put near her. 

It has been frequently observed that each little pig has its own 
peculiar teat, and will not willingly suck from any other; therefore, 
as the front teats yield most milk, the smallest pigs should be 
placed to them. If more young are farrowed than the mother has 
teats, the most weakly-looking must be destroyed, unless it should 
so happen that there is another sow at hand which has fewer pigs 
than teats, in which case they may be put to her, if this can be done 
without her knowledge; though some writers affirm that a sow will 
give her teats inditferently to her own offspring or to that of a 
stranger. 

It does not, however, always happen that the parturition is effect- 
ed with such ease. Cases of false presentation, of enlarged foetus, 
of debility in the mother, often render it difficult and dangerous. 
The womb will occasionally become protruded and inverted in 
consequence of the forcing pains of difficult parturition, and even 
the bladder has been known to come away. These parts must be 
returned as soon as may be ; and if the womb has come in contact 
with the dung or litter and acquired any dirt, it must be first wash- 
ed in hike-w^arm water, and then returned and confined in its place 
by means of a suture passed through the lips of the orifice. Some 
foreign ^ eterinarians place a pessary high up the vagina, and secure 
it in its situation by means of an iron ring or wire; but this is a 



PARTURITION. 163 

complicated operation, and could not be performed A'ithout great 
difficulty on so obstinate an animal. The easiest and perhaps the 
best way is not to return the protruded parts at all, but merely 
tie a ligature around them and leave them to slough off, which they 
will do in the course of a few days, without effusion of blood or 
further injury to the animal. No sow that has once suffered from 
protrusion of the womb should be allowed to breed again. 

Mr. Ilamsden, of Ripon, gives the following account of a case of 
difficult parturition : — 

'•About the middle of August, 1840, I was called in and request- 
ed to assist a sow that was in labor, could not rise, and seemed to 
be in great suffering. I relieved her of one, gave her some gruel, 
and hoped that she would be able to effect the parturition of the 
remaining ones without aid. 

" On my return she was perfectly sei>seless. The young pig was 
endeavoring to suck. The parturition had not in the least degree 
advanced. I pressed with my left hand over the diaphragm, which 
recalled in a slight degree the pains, and empounded my right hand 
gradually. I then drew out a second pig; it lay about four 
inches anterior to the pelvis. The stupor of the mother was a little 
removed, and at length 1 got the whole litter of ten pigs, and also 
the placental membrane. This was 'the first case of the kind that 
ever came under my notice." — The Veterinarian^ vol. xiv. 

Another and still more interesting case is given by Mr. Cartw right, 
veterinary surgeon : — 

" On the 11th of July, 1839, 1 was requested to attend a sow, the 
property of a farmer near this town. The poor animal had been in 
labor six days. During the last three days she was not able to 
stand, nor had she taken any food, and her death was expected every 
hour. She was a very fat animal, and the owner informed me that 
she was about ten days past her time of pigging, and that he was 
confident the pigs were dead. I was of the same opinion ; and, 
after a minute examination, felt confident that nothing short of 
the Cassarean operation could save her; at the same time informing 
the owner that she might die in consequence of, or during, the 
operation. 

"The operation was consented to ; and I proceeded first to secure 
her legs, a!id to have them firmly extended their full length, and 
retained there by assistants. 1 next placed a bundle of straw under- 
neath her, which gave the belly a round and prominent position, 
rendering it more tense and firm, and at the same time giving me 
considerable ad 'antage in operating. 

"My first proceeding was to clear away the hair in the direction 
of my intended incision, in which I, at the onset, had made up my 
mind to follow the theory taught in operative surgery, viz. always 
V) make the incisions in the same direction as the muscular fibres, 



164: THE HOG. 

and, a )ove all, never to sever a muscle if it could be avoided. The 
hair being removed, 1 was about to make the incisions le^gthway^, 
in the course of the linea alba, when it suddenly occurred to ma 
that 1 should not, in this case, be able to keep the lips of the wound 
approximated by sutures or bandages, on account of the depending 
state of the abdomen and its contents. I therefore determined to 
make the incisions more on the side, and across the oblique externua 
abdominis. I accordingly cut freely through the integuments for 
about eight inches in length, which I accomplished with a common 
scalpel. Next I penetrated through the adipose or fatty matter 
underneath, of which there was no lack ; and then cut down on the 
muscle, at the superior part of the incision, quite through, and expos- 
ing the peritoneum. 1 now introduced my forefingers as directors, 
and with the curved bistoury laid the abdomen freely open. 

'• The lips of the incision or wound of course receded from each 
other to a great distance, and a slight arterial hemorrhage ensued, 
which I thought proceeded from the circumflex artery of the ileum. 
]f the incision had been made longitudinally, this might have been 
prevented, but as the hemorrhage soon ceased, it was of little con- 
sequence. The intestines were much inflated with gas, and protruded 
as far as the wound of the peritoneum extended. 

" I now introduced my right hand, and distinctly felt the situation 
of the uterus, when the aniuial made a desperate struggle, and some 
of the small intestines escaped. I found it necessary for an assist- 
ant to introduce his hand, to prevent a repetition of this. The 
bladder was distended with urine, which proved somewhat trouble- 
some, and I had no catheter at hand. I was now about to make a 
second attempt to open the uterus, when I accidently felt the pulsa- 
tion of a large artery. Had 1 divided the uterus in the same 
direction as the incision in the abdomen I should have cut the artery. 
Was it the uterine or vaginal artery ? I placed my hand inferior to 
the vessel, and felt a young one. Next, with a scalpel in my right 
hand, guarded at the point with my forefinger, fearing that the sow 
might struggle and the instrument wound some of the intestines, I 
cut through the uterus, introduced my finger guarding the scalpel, 
and eflected an opening into it about six inches in length. 1 then 
introduced my hand, laid hold of one of the foetal pigs, and drew it 
out. In this way I proceeded until I removed the whole number, 
which amounted to seven. 

"The operation being thus far completed, her legs were drawn 
towards each other, which brought the lips of the wound into approxi 
mation, and I retained them there by strong adhesive plasters, over 
which I placed a roller passing three times round her body. I now 
proceeded to exaniine my patient: she was, as might be expected, 
in a very weak state; and when her head was raised, it fell again 
iuon my hand as if she wis dead. As she lay in this exhaustct? 



PARTURITION. 1{)C 

state, not a muscle except the involuntary ones moving, I gave hei 
a little brandy and water, and then closed the door and left her. 
The general opinion of the by-standers was, that in a few minutea 
she would be dead : this was about 4 p. m. hidispensable business 
prevented me from seeing her until 10 o'clock, when I was glad to 
find my patient somewhat revived. I gave more brandy and beet- 
tea, and left her t\)r the night. 

"At 6 A. M. there was a decided improvement ; the extremities 
were warm, the respiration tranquil, with an occasional grunt and 
pricking or moving of the ears ; some faeces had passed during the 
night. 1 doubted whether the bladder had been emptied, and there- 
fore introduced a small catheter which I use for sheep, &C;, and took 
away a great quantity of water. I ordered more weak brandy and 
water and broth. 

"At 6 p. M. the symptoms were improving, excepting that the 
side surrounding the incision was a little swelled ; 1 therefore 
ordered fotnentations to be applied, using hot cloths, with but little 
water, 

" 18//i. — Doing well ; the secretions regular; and she for the first 
time voluntarily took a little milk, with a drachm of brandy, of 
which she appeared fond. From this time she continued to improve 
jaily ; and on the fifth day from the operation she was able to stand, 
md fed well. The roller round her body was not removed for a 
iionth, and the plaster remained for nearly three months. When it 
came away the wound was beautifully healed. This animal has 
attracted considerable attention in the neighborhood, and she is now 
as fat as she can be, and a fine specimen of the short-eared breed.'* 

MONSTROSITIES. 

Monstrosities are often farrowed by swine, ft would be difficult 
to assign any cause for this, did we admit, with most persons, that 
those are peculiarly stupid and unimaginative animals; but as in 
Chapter III. we have already declared our opinion to be a contrary 
one, the inexplicability of the matter is done away with. 

Mr. Ellis, V. S., of Liverpool, gives an account of six sows belong 
ing to one person which all produced blind young ones, the gi eater 
part of which were without the least semblance of an eye, the orbif 
being quite empty. Some of them had four ears each. Only four 
out of the whole lot lived ; they were either brought forth dead or 
died immediately after birth. 

One of the sows could not farrow any of her young ones, they 
being three times the proper size, and in a state of decomposition. 
The Cassarean operation was therefore performed, as the only means 
of saving her ; but it had been delayed too long ; she only lived 
three hours after it. 



166 THE HOG 

These pigs were all got by one boar, but the sows were of differ 
ent breeds. 

TREATMENT OF THE SOWS WHILE SUCKLING. 

More depends upon this than many persons seem to have the least 
idea of, both as regards the mother and the young ; and many a fine 
ROW and promising litter have been ruined for want of proper and 
judicious care at this period. 

Immediately after farrowing, many sows are apt to be fevei'ish ; 
where this is the case, a light and sparing diet only should be given 
them for the first day or two, as gruel, oatmeal-porridge, whey, and 
such-liive. Others, again, are very much debilitated, and require 
strengthening; for them strong soup, bread steeped in wine or in a 
mixture of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small 
quantities, will often prove highly beneficial. 

Gradually the rations must be increased and given more fre- 
quently ; and they must be composed of wholesome, nutritious, and 
succulent matters. All kinds of roots — carrots, turnips, potatoes, 
and beet-root — well steamed or boiled, may be given, but never raw ; 
bran, barley and oatmeal, bean-flower, Indian corn, whey, sour, skim, 
and butter-milk, all are perfectly well adapted for this period ; and, 
should the animal appear to require it, grain well bruised and i.iace- 
rated may also be added. Bean-flour is considered by many persons 
to create an abundance of milk ; and there are many who deem 
barley meal too stimulating, and advise that it should never be used 
alone, but always one-third oatmeal to two-thirds of the barleymeal. 
"Whenever it is possible, the sow should be turned out for an hour 
each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the fresh air and 
exercise and herbage, will do her an infinity of good. The young 
pigs must be shut up for the first ten days or a fortnight, after which 
they will be old enough to follow her and take their share of the 
benefit. 

The rations should be given regularly at certain hours ; small and 
often-repeated meals are far preferable to large ones, for indiges- 
tion or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach vitiates 
the milk, and produces diarrhoea and other similar affections in the 
young. 

The mother should always be well, but not over-fed ; the better 
and more carefully she is fed, the more abundant and nutritious will 
her milk be, the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, and the less will 
she be pulled down by suckling them. 

When a sow is weakly, and has not a sufficiency of milk, the 
young pigs must be taught to feed as early as possible. A kind of 
gruel, made with skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, will be the best 
thing for this purpose ; or a soup composed of potatoes, boiled, and 



TREATMENT WHILE SUCKLING. 187 

then mashed hi 'iiiik or whey, with or without the addition ci a little 
bran or oatn:ieal. 

Towards the period when the pigs are to be weaned the sow must 
be less plentifully fed, otherwise the secretion of milk will be as 
great as ever ; and it will accumulate, and there will be hardness, and 
perhaps inflammation of the teats. Should it appear requisite, a 
dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying off the milk ; but 
in general a little judicious management in the feeding and weaning 
will be all that is requisite. 

Martin says : " From some ill-understood cause, several domestic 
animals, as the rabbit, and sometimes the cat, seem to forget all in- 
stinctive tics, and turning upon their offspring, ravenously and unna- 
turally devour them. This is not unfrequently the case with the 
sow; and it is remarkable, that when this revolting act has been 
once committed, its re-occurrence may be expected. This disposi- 
tion is not always or necessarily connected with general ferocity, 
nor even with the fierce anxiety which the sow, with other ani- 
mals, displays in the protection of her young; it may be that the 
animal is ordinarily mild and gentle, and yet at this juncture becomes 
madly ferocious. We are not aware whether or not such tragic 
scenes take place among animals in a state of natural independence; 
most probably they never do, or but very rarely. Yet in early 
ages the sow was evidently subject to this morbid propensity ; for 
among the regulations respecting swine, laid down by Hoel Dha, 
one of the good qualities of a sow expressly noticed is, that she 
do not devour her young ones. The less the sow, after bringing 
forth her young, is meddled with, the more comfortable her bed- 
ding, the more regularly and gently she has been previously man- 
aged and treated, the less likely is she to violate one of the great 
laws of nature. 

" The wild boar, as we have said, is a dangerous animal ; and so 
indeed, to a certain extent, is the domestic boar of some of the 
larger breeds. Instances are not unfiequent of boars turning furi- 
ously upon their keepers, especially if interfered with when in com- 
pany with the female, or if constrained to quit her society. 

" It is not, however, only at certain times and under certain circum- 
stances that the boar is dangerous : a boar, especially one of the 
large old breeds, is by no means a safe animal to venture near at any 
time, and we have more than once seen sows almost equally savage; 
this, however, is not generally the case." 

TREATMENT OF THE YOUNG WHILE SUCKING. 

For the first ten days or a fortnight, the mother will generally be 
able to support her litter without assistance, unless, as has been 
Jilready observed, she is weakly, or they are too many in number; 



168 THE HOG. 

in either of which cases they must be fed from the first. When the 
young pigs are about a fortnight old, warm milk should be given to 
them. In another week, this may be thickened with some species 
of farina ; and afterwards, as they gain strength and increase in size, 
boiled roots and vegetables may be added. As soon as they begin 
to eat, an open frame or railing should be placed in the sty, under 
which the little pigs can run, and on the other side of this should 
be the small troughs containing their food; for it never answers to 
let them eat out of the same trough with the mother, both because 
the food set before her is generally too strong and stimulating for 
them, and besides, the chances are they would not get a mouthful. 
Those intended to be killed for "sucking-pigs" should not be above 
four weeks old ; most persons kill them for this purpose on the 
twenty-first or twenty -second day. The others, excepting those 
which are kept for the purpose of breeding, should be castrated at 
the same time. 

WEANING. 

The age at which pigs may be weaned with the greatest advantage 
is when they are about eight or ten weeks old ; many persons, how- 
ever, wean them as early as six weeks, but then they seldom turn 
^ut so well. They should not be taken from the sow at once, but gra- 
dually weaned. At first they should be removed fi-om her for a 
certain number of hours each day, and accustomed to be driven by 
liunger to eat from the trough ; tlien they may be turned out for an 
hour without her, and afterwards shut up while she is turned out 
also by herself. Subsequently they must only be allowed to suck 
so often in twenty-four hours ; perhaps six times at fiirst, then four, 
then twice, and at last only once ; and meanwhile they must be pro- 
portionally better and more plentifully fed, and the mother's diet in 
a like manner diminished ; thus will the weaning be icxx)mplished 
without danger or evil consequences to either. Some persons have 
advised that the whole litter should not be weaned at once; we do 
not, however, agree with them, unless it should happen that one or 
two of the young ones are much weaker and smaller than the 
others; in such case, if the sow remains in tolerable condition, they 
might be suffered to suck for a week lono;er; but such a mode 
of proceeding should be an exception, not a general rule. 

Pigs are more easily weaned than alinost any other animals, 
because they learn to feed sooner ; but nevertheless this is always a 
somewhat critical period, and great attention must be paid to them 
if we would have them grow up strong, healthy animals. Their 
styes must be warm, dry, clean, well ventilated, and weather-tight. 
They should have the run of a grass meadow^ or paddock for an hour 
or two every fine day, in the spring and summer, or be turned into 
the farm-yard among the cattle in the winter, as fresh air and exer 



WEANING. 169 

cise tend to prevent them from becoming rickety or crooked in tlu 
legs. 

Butter-milk, whey, and the refuse of the dairy, with boiled or 
steamed potatoes, pollard, and oat or barley meal, may be given as 
food ; also boiled cabbage and lettuce, macerated and bruised oatSj 
barley, and even wheat; in short, the most nutritious and succulent 
food that circumstances will permit of, and a daily run at grass 
wherever it is possible. At first their food should all be given to 
them warm, and be tolerably soft, in order better to assimilate wiih 
the state of the digestive functions ; gradually and soon they must 
be accustomed to take it cold, it being far better for them so when 
once they are used to it ; and they must also learn to masticate 
their food. 

Newly-weaned pigs require five or six meals in the twenty-four 
hcturs. In about ten days one may be omitted ; in another week, 
a second ; and then they must do with three regular meals each 
day. 

But let it be understood that, while we would enforce the neces- 
sity of good and ample feeding, we highly deprecate all excess, and 
all stimulating, heating diet, such tending to vitiate the animal 
powers, often to lay the foundation of disease, and never to produce 
good, sound, well-flavored flesh. 

A little sulphur mingled with the food, or a small quantity of 
Epsom or Glauber's salts disolved in the water, will frequently 
prove beneficial. 

A plentiful supply of clear cold water should always be within 
their reach; the food left in the trough after the animals have done 
eating, should be removed, and the trough thoroughly rinsed out 
before any more is put into it. Strict attention should be paid to 
cleanliness ; indeed, many persons assert that there is no comparison 
in point of thriving between an animal well cleaned and repeatedly 
brushed and another that is left to itself; although both shall be in 
feeding and all other respects treated exactly the same, the latter 
will not weigh so much as the former by many pounds. 

This treatment will bring them on to the time when the ov/ner 
must separate those he intends for breeders from those which are to 
be fattened for the market. The boars and sows should be kept 
apart from the period of weaning. 

The question of which is most profitable — to breed swine, or to 
buy young pigs and fatten them — will best be determined by the 
individuals who have to study it, for they know best what resources 
they can command, and what chance of profits each of these separate 
branches offers. 

There was an interesting paper published some little time since 
in the Farmer^ s Magazine, calculating the number of pigs which, in 
the course of ten years, may be raised from two one vear old sowat. 
8 



170 THE HOG. 

We give it verbatim, as many of our readers have probably nevei 
entered into such a calculation, or formed the least idea of the amaz- 
ing quantity of animal food which may be derived from this kind of 
stock : 

" I am indebted to a worthy and sensible friend, and a friend also 
of the poor, for the following estimate of what I shall term ' pig 
population,' and set it in array against the increasing demands of the 
home population, which goes on at the rate of not quite 1| per cent, 
per annum — nay, little more than H by the last ten years' census. 
I think, with the assistance of my above-mentioned friend, I can feed 
the supernumeraries well, and in this way, at all events, save their 
bacon. Would you credit the assertion that in ten years — ten short 
years — and from two breeding sows, many millions can be pro- 
duced ] Would you suppose (for I certainly had no conception of 
the fact) that more than the present or even antic-ipated population 
of the country for ten years to come is not equal to the number of 
pigs to be thus born and bred in the same period, if we choose ? 
But I shall proceed to proof and give the figures, which are un- 
answerable arguments when well founded. His calculation, then, is 
as follows, viz.: that in one year two sows (one year old) will 
breed ten each, of which we shall assume that one-half are females, 
and so proceed on that assumed equality. 

" The first year there will be males and females 20 

From which take the males 10 

And we have the result as breeders 10 

At the second year, then, we may fairly take the same ratio of ten to 
each, viz. : » 10 

2)100 
And it gives us a hundred males and females, leaving, con- — 

sequently, for the third year, breeders 50 

I shall now drop the text, and merely give the figures, the same prin- 
ciple applying throughout 10 

Third year 2)500 

250 
10 

Fourth year 2)2,500 

1,250 
10 

Fifth year 2)12,500 

6,250 
lU 

62.500 



HOG POPULATION. 171 

Sixth year 2)62,500 



31,250 
10 



Seventh year , 2)312,500 

156,250 
10 

Eighth year 2)1,562,500 

781,250 
10 

Ninth year 2)7,812^ 

3,906,250 
10 

Tenth year, males and females 39 062 500 

" I hope my friend has brought his pigs to a good market ; Lut to 
equalize the supply, I shall, for the present purpose, take only the 
male half of the pig population for food, leaving the breeders to 
go on. In this way we can kill and eat ten the first year — no bad 
increase from two sows, recollect; the second year, 50; the third, 
250; the fourth, 1250; the fifth, (5250; the sixth, 31,250 (pork in 
abundance now) ; the seventh, 156,250 (still more abundant) ; the 
eighth, 781,250; the ninth, 3,906,250 ; and the tenth, when divided 
in like manner, the enormous number of 19,531,250 for food, with- 
out interfering with the breeders, who, I presume, by this time will 
probably require killing also. Now, I am not aware that much com- 
mentary is required on this prolific subject ; every man who reads 
this short paper will at once draw his own conclusions from the facts. 
They are, however, of a very cheering description, and drawn from 
the breeding of one domestic animal only, and amply prove what 
abundant stores nature and the God of nature have provided for 
human subsistence. I shall close this paper with the sensible prac- 
tical observation of my friend in reference to this subject, as, after 
all, it is in practice only that the benefits open to all are 'to be 
received by any. In the county of Kent, he informs me, there are 
31,000 agricultural families or fiirmers. It is a very easy matter 
for each to keep two breeding-sows, which in three years would pro- 
duce in round numbers 15,000,000 of pigs. 

" In the fifty-two counties of England, he also adds, the number of 
agricultural families is 760,000 ; so that, by the same mode of cal- 
culation as for Kent, every farmer keeping two sows, the produce 
would be, in the like period, 380,000,000 pigs. One good breedintr 
sow to each would consequently produce 15,000,000. As I have 



172 THE HOG. 

said, and ?ay again, is this all true ? for if so, what prevents the im 
mediate use of the same beneficial proceeding to every one, not e\en 
omitting the allotment tenant"? What more easy and practicable 
than to breed on a small scale, or to join two or three families toge- 
ther, and thus diminish expense and increase profits'? J throw out 
the hint, and hope that good may arise from a due consideration of ^ 
the prominent facts already stated." 

With the following valuable remarks by that well-known practical 
agriculturist and grazier, Arthur Young, we will conclude this chap- 
ter : — 

"The breeding of swine being one of the most profitable articles 
in the whole business of a flirm, the husbandman cannot pay too 
much attention to it. I shall, in as few words as the subject will 
admit, give an account of the best system to be pursued in this 
branch of his business. The farmer who would make a considerable 
profit by hogs must determine to keep a proper number of sows ixi 
order to breed many pigs; but this resolution ought to be preceded 
by the most careful determination to prepare crops proper for sup- 
porting this stock. The proper ones for that purpose are barley, 
buck, beans, peas, clover, potatoes or carrots, in the common ma- 
nagement, a farmer keeps only a sow or two because his dairy will 
do no more ; but in the system of planting crops purposely for swine, 
a ditferent conduct must necessarily be pursued. Potatoes, carrots, 
Swedish turnips, and cabbages, must be provided for the sows and 
stores from October till the end of May, by which time clover, chi- 
cory, or lucerne should be ready to receive them, which will carry 
them till the stubbles are cleared; so that the whale year is filled 
up with these plants, and the common oflal of the barn-door and the 
corn-fields. When the sows pig, meal must be provided to make 
wash by mixing it with water. This in summer will be good enough 
for their support, and in winter it must be mixed with boiled roots, 
oats, and pea-soup, for the young pigs. If cows are kept, then the 
dairy-wash is to be used in the above mixtures. 

" Upon this system, a flirmer may proportion his swine to his 
crops, or his crops to his swine ; and he will find that for the whole 
year he should have about an equal quantity of roots and grass, and 
half as much corn as potatoes. For carrying the profit to the highest 
advantage, the sows should pig but twice a-year, that is, in April and 
August, by which means there will never be a long and expensive 
season for rearing pigs before they are put to the staple food of clover 
or potatoes, &c. ; but this circumstance is much removed by the 
provision of crops raised expressly for the swine. 

" Upon this plan the annual sale of lean hogs should be in Octo])er, 
the litters of April sold then as stores, and those of August kept till 
October twelvemonth to sell for baconers, if the flirmer feeds none 
himself. The stock upon hand this m.onth will therefore be the sowa, 



FEEDING. 173 

and the pigs littered in the preceding August, all which should have 
roots from the store, and run at the same time in the farm-yard, fc 
shacking the straw of the barn-doors. In proportion to what the} 
find in this, yoix must supply them with roots, giving cinough to keep 
them in growth." 



CHAPTER XII. 

On Fee(lin<T Swine— Fal Pigs— Cattle Shows— Whey, Milk, and Dairy Refuse— Refuse ant 
Grains of Distilleries and Breweries — Residue of Starch Manufactories — Vegetables and 
Roots — Fruits — Gram — Soiling and I'asturing Swine — Animal Substances as Food for them— 
General Directions for Feeding and Fattening. 

Martin says : 

'• That great attention should be paid to the hog, especially in a 
country like England, and when we consider its importance as a flesh- 
giving animal, is not surprising. There is, in fact, no part of the hog, 
its bristles excepted, which is not consumed ; the very intestines are 
cleansed, and knotted into chitterlings, by many persons exceedingly 
relished ; the blood, mixed with fat and rice, is made into black pud- 
dings ; the si\in of pork roasted, is a bonne louche ; a roast sucking 
pig is hailed with satisfaction ; salt pork and bacon are in incessant 
demand, and are important articles of commerce. Great quantities 
are prepared in Ireland for exportation, and great quantities are also 
prepared in England. It is stated by Dr. Mavor, in his ' Survey of 
Berkshire,' that at Farringdon fully four thousand are annually killed 
and cured. 

'* One great value of the hog arises from the peculiarity of its fat, 
which, in contradistinction to that of the ox or that of the sheep, is 
termed lard, and differs from them in the proportion of its consti- 
tuent principles, which are essentially olein, or elain, and stearin. 
All fats agree in being insoluble in water. It may not be uninterest- 
ing to the reader to know the distinguishing characters of the fat of 
our three most important flesh-giving domestic animals. 

'■^Ox Fat. — When this has been fused, it begins to solidify at 98°, 
and the temperature then rises (on account of the evolution of latent 
heat) to 102°. Forty parts of boiling alehol of sp. gr. 0821 dis- 
solve one part of it, and it contains about three-fourths its weight of 
stearin, which is solid, hard, colorless, not greasy, and of a granular 
texture. It fuses at about 112°, and may then be cooled to 102°^ 
when, on congealing, it rises to 112°. It burns like white wax. Of 
this stearin, about 15"5 parts are d ssolved by 100 parts of anhy- 
drous alcohol. 



1 74 THE HOG. 

" The olein of ox fat is colorless, nearly inodorous, and its specific 
gravity 0-1)13 ; boiling alcohol dissolves nearly one-fourth more than 
its weight. 

''^ Sk-:tp's Fat^ or Mutton Suet, greatly reseinLles that of the ox. 
It is, however, whiter, and, by exposure to the air, acquires a peculiar 
odor. After fusion, it congeals at a temperature varying between 
i>»" and 102^. It dissolves in 44 parts of alcohol of sp. gr. 0-821. 
The stearin is white, translucent, and, after fusion, but imperfectly 
crystalline. About 16 parts are dissolved by 100 parts of boiling 
anhydrous alcohol. The olein of mutton suet is colorless. Its 
specific gravity is 0'913, and 80 parts of it are dissolved by 100 
parts of anhydrous alcohol at 168°. 

"•Hoff's Fat, or Ilog^s Lard, is a soft, colorless solid, which fu^es 
between 78° and 86°. Is specific gravity at 60° is 938. By 
powerful and long-continued pressure between folds of blotting 
paper, it is stated to yield 62-lOOths of its weight of colorless 
olein, of specific gravity 0-915. Of this, 100 parts of boiling 
alcohol dissolve 123 parts. The stearin of hog's lard is inodorous, 
solid, and granular, which, after fusion, remains liquid down to 100°, 
and then, on congealing, the temperature rises to 109°. It becomes 
acid by exposure to the air. 

" DiflTerent as are the qualities of stearin and olein, analysis shows 
that their composition is less remote than might be expected. The 
subjoined analysis of mutton may be taken as a general example : — 

Hydrogen .... 
Carbon .... 
Oxygen 

100« 100- 

" One great value of the hog, arises from the peculiarity of its 
fat. The great mass of this fat is laid on under the skin, and be- 
tween the superficial muscles. 

" Vancouver, in his ' Survey of Essex,' makes the following judi- 
cious observations relative to the management and value of hogs: — 
* There is no animal in the whole economy of good husbandry that 
requires more attention as to breed, number, and supply of food, or 
will better requite the care and trouble of the former, than a well- 
managed and proper stock of hogs. These things, however, are too 
much overlooked, or rather disregarded, by farmers in general, 
though all are ready to agree that an overstock in other respects 
must ever prove fatal to the interests of the flirmer. Hogs are too 
frequently conceived to be a trifling and unimportant part of the 
stock of a form; whereas, if their first cost and the value of their 
food were duly consideied, with their improving value, it would 
certainly bea them out against /iome of the more costly animals, 



Stearin. 




Olein. 


11-770 


. 


. 11-090 


78-776 . 




79-354 


9-454 


• 


. 9*55 C 



FEEDING. 175 

and challenge more care and attention than are usually bestowed 
upon them. A due regard to the breed which the peculiar circum- 
stances of the farm may call for is particularly necessary, as some 
breeds are much better suited to pasture, and feed upon grass and 
nerbs, than others. The most hardy and best qualified to prog for 
themselves are the Chinese, a cross with which breed upon almost 
any other may, under most circumstances, be prudently recom- 
mended. Let the breed "be what it may, a well-proportioned stock 
to every form will most abundantly requite the care and repay the 
expense of the necessary food provided for them. A few acres of 
clover would be well applied to the use of the hogs in summer; but 
in the sty it would be well to restrain them to a certain quantity of 
water, and to lodge them clean and dry, notwithstanding the wilful 
neglect and too prevailing opinion to the contrary ; tor cleanliness is 
as essential to the preservation of their health and well-doing as to 
that of any other animal.' 

" These views are very different from those of a writer in the 
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, w^ho says, ' It is greatly doubted 
by many competent judges, whether swine form a profitable stock, 
at least when fed on food which requires to be raised for the purpose. 
The results deduced from calculations entered into, to show the pro- 
bable return for a given quantity of grain, roots, or other vegetable 
produce, are, however, so discordant as to avail but little in the f()r.. 
mation of a settled and conclusive opinion. In connexion with dis- 
tilleries, dairies, breweries, and other large establishments, they are 
of much higher and assured importance, and return, in proportion 
to the offafthey consume, a great quantity of meat. Their chief 
advantage as live stock probably consists in their being nourished by 
what wo^ild otherwise either prove nearly useless, or be entirely lost. 
When potatoes are raised as a fallow crop, exceeding the demands 
of human consumption, the rearing of swine for bacon and pickled 
pork becomes an advisable branch of rural economy.' ^ 

" No one, we presume, would keep pigs without having the means 
of feeding them at his command, all necessary conveniences, and a 
proper system of management. Under such circumstances they 
will return ample profit, a flict well known in America, where 
the hog is important to a degree elsewhere unknown, Ireland not 
excepted. 

'♦ If this animal is profitable to proprietors of large establish- 
ments, to great distillers, to millers, to farmers and dairymen, so it 
is to the laboring peasant who cultivates a little garden, and collects 
the refuse of the kitchens of his wealthier neighbors ; he will have 
two or three litters in the course of the year, saleable as ' sucking 
pigs' at the age of three or four weeks, and at Christmas he will kill 
two, three, or four fat pigs, and find a ready sale f<)r the meat, be- 
sides turning part into bacon for M* own family. This is no theory; 



176 THE HOG. 

^76 ourselves know tho^e who act upon the plan, and find it a source 
of profit and comfort. It would not, however, do for the idle or the 
improvident; it demands industry, order, and fore-thought, ar d that 
assistance, which, while the man is going on with his regular work, 
his wife or some part of his family can render. 

" Exclusive of bacon, hams, &c., great is the demand for fresh 
pork throughout our island — much greater, indeed, than formerly, 
and this is in some measure owing to the improvement of our breeds; 
our porkers are small-sized, with fine-grained delicate flesh, and firm 
fat, sufficiently but not superabundantly laid on, and the skin is thin 
and clear ; the limbs are round and fine-boned. Such is the country- 
fed pork to be seen in London and in other towns. Formerly such 
pork was never sent to market, and in some counties it is still un- 
known. We allude to the more northern of the midland counties, 
and those still farther north. A relative farming in Derbyshire, and 
on a visit to the author, expressed his surprise at the smallness and 
delicacy of the dairy-fed pork placed upon our table. His idea of 
fresh pork was limited to spare-ribs, and griskins of bacon hogs ; 
and he deemed the destruction of young porkers for food utter folly. 
He forgot, perhaps never reflected that these younglings, by quick 
returns and good profits, remunerated the farmer, miller, or dairy 
man far more than they would have done if kept to be bacon hogs 
and fed up to the proper pitch. 

" We have sufficiently demonstrated the value of the pig as one 
of the flesh-producing animals which man has reclaimed. Through- 
out the whole of Europe, and the greater portion of America, the 
flesh of the hog, fresh, salted, or cured, is in constant demand ; nor 
less so the lard, which is required by the cook, by the apothecary, 
and by the perfumer. 

" No part of the hog, as we have said, is useless ; not even its 
bristles or its skin. 

"The bristles of our fine-bred races are perhaps of no value — 
they are generally short, slender, and thinly set ; but in the coarser 
breeds, they are long and strong, firm and elastic. The export of 
bristles alone from Russia and Prussia into our country, forms nc 
inconsiderable item. We need not detail their various uses. 

*' With respect to the hide of this animal, it is, when tanned, of a 
peculiar texture, and very tough. It is used for making pocket- 
books, and for some ornamental purposes, but chiefly for covering 
saddles. The numerous little variegations in it, and which constitute 
its beauty, are the orifices whence the bristles have been removed." 
— Martin. 

The establishment of agricultural societies and cattle-shows formed 
the commencement of a new era in the breeding of all domesticated 
animals, and especially of swine, which had, previously to that epoch, 
bt'en very much neglected. There cannot be a doubt but that th«* 



FEEDING 177 

competition, the assembling together of breeders from all counties 
and even from abroad, the comparison of the different animals 
brought together, and the conclusions drawn in many minds, tend 
materially to the elucidation and advancement of the science of breed- 
ing. Persons resident in remote localities are apt to" set up for them- 
selves some particular standard of excellence, and make it the whole 
aim of their endeavors to obtain and develop certain points in an 
animal, and having done this they rest satisfied ; but when the 
annual cattle show places before them other and evidently superior 
animals, they perceive how much too limited, and often how erro- 
neous, have been their views, and set to work afresh to improve upon 
the knowledge thus acquired. 

But there is no good without its attendant evil. It was, doubtless, 
originally intended by those who established the distribution of 
prizes for certain kinds of stock, that the prize animal should be the 
most excellent as to its points, the most useful to the farmer, breed- 
er, and butcher, and altogether the most profitable ; but not that it 
should be the fattest ! It is reported that, on Hannah More being 
asked what was the use of cattle-shows, she replied, " To induce peo- 
ple to make beef and mutton so fat that nobody can eat it.'' This 
certainly is the abuae of them, and in no class of animals is it carried 
to such an extent as in swine. The greedy propensities of the poor 
animal are worked upon ; he is shut up, often in darkness, and fed 
and suffered to goro-e himself until he can scarcelv move or breathe, 
and often dies of suffocation, or is obliged to be killed, from the sim- 
ple exertion of being brought to the show in the most easy and care- 
ful manner. A premium would be far better bestowed upon the 
most useful and profitable animal, the one most likely to make good 
bacon or pork, than on these huge masses of obesity, whose super- 
abundance of fat is fit for little else but the melting pot. As much 
money is often wasted on one of these monsters as would purchase 
food for half a dozen really profitable animals. And to what pur- 
pose % Simply to test the elastic power of a pig's skin 1 " No,'' 
reply the advocates of this species of monomania, " but to discover 
which breeds can be fattened to the greatest size in the shortest time, 
and on the smallest amount of food." And to this plea we can only 
reply, that while we admit the value of such knowledge, we think it 
might be attained without the sacrifice of a fine animal, at much less 
expense, and far more satisfactorily. Let the animals be fat, but do 
not let them be a mere bladder of lard, " of shape undefined," every 
point lost and buried. I"^ is fine and profitable breeds we require, 
not monstrosities. The grand aim of agricultural societies is to pro- 
mote the improvement of the breeds, and consequently the profit of 
the breeder, and general advantage. We trust that this will shortly 
be fully understood and carried out, and the cattle-shows become, aa 
it were, model-rooms, instead of mere exhibitions of over fed, pant 



178 THE HOG. 

inof, unshapely beasts. But it is not our feeble voice alone wnlch U 
raised against this unnatural stuffing : public attention has latterly 
b^en much called to this point; and among others, our merry critic 
• 'unch, who fails not to lash each passing folly of the age, h{is, as will 
' 9 seen by the following epitaph, not been unmindful of this one : — 

'^Epitaph on a Prize. Pig. 

HERE LIES 

ALL THAT WAS EATABLE 

OF A PRIZE I'IG. 

HE WAS BORN 
ON FEBRUARY 1, 1845: 

HE WAS FED 

ON MILK, POTATOES, AND 

BARLEY-MEAL : 

HE WAS SLAUGHTERED 

ON DECEMBER 24, 1846, 

WEIGHING 80st. 91bs. 

STOP, TRAVELLER ! 

AND REFLECT HOW SMALL A PORTION 

OF THIS VAST PIG 

WAS PORK SUITABLE 

FOR HUMAN FOOD." 

Hurtrel D'Arboval, treating of Obesity, says, "There is, however 
no animal so liable to become over-fat, as the pig, and especially the 
Chinese and Siamese swine. Naturally inclined to corpulence anr 
gluttony, they easily acquire an enormous bulk ; and when fat ha« 
once begun to accumulate, the animal eats little, breathes with diffi 
culty, becomes inert, unable to sustain his own weight, and deficient 
in sensation. We have seen wretched pigs so fat that they were 
obliged to be lifted or dragged out of the sty whenever it was neces- 
sary to move them. We have also made incisions in their buttocks 
and even taken off portions of skin from their backs, without their 
betraying any sense of pain. We saw one hog that had lain for a 
considerable period on one side, too powerless or too inert even to 
shift its position, and when it was raised, a large hole was perceived 
in that part of the back which had been undermost. This had been 
made by rats feeding and gnawing into the fat of the beast, evidently 
without its being in the least conscious of their proceedings. 

"Animals that have been castrated are always more disposed to 
obesity." 

We will now proceed to consider the various modes of keeping 
and feeding swine and their relative value, and the other incidental 
matters which may develop themselves as we proceed. 



FEEDING. 179 

Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months 
old, and for bacon at from a twelvemonth to two years. Eighteen 
months is generally considered to be the proper age for a good 
bacon hog. 

The feeding of pigs will always, in a great measure, depend upon 
the circumstances of the owner, upon the kind of food which he has 
at his disposal and can best spare, and the purpose for which he in- 
tends the animals. It will also be in some degree regulated by the 
season, it being possible to feed pigs very differently in the summer 
to what they are fed in the winter. During the former they can 
either be sty -fed or pastured, or both ; and there is also a greater 
variety of vegetables and green food for them, as well as of dairy 
refuse ; while in the winter they must be home-fed, and in most 
cases their diet limited to roots, peas, beans, or other such dried 
food, and wash composed of the scanty residue of the dairy, or sup- 
plied from the house or brewery. 

WHEY, MILK, AND DAIRY REFUSE. 

For sty-fed pigs the washings of the dairy, as butter and skim- 
milk, whey, &c., are excellent, and especially whey thickened with 
barley, or oat, or pea-meal, whey being more nourishing than skim- 
milk; the animals thrive and make flesh so well on it, that many 
farmers are of opinion that this mode of employing their sour milk 
is more profitable than making cheese. But when the swine have 
once become habituated to this kind of diet it must be continued, as 
they would fall off if put upon any other. There was a beautiful 
lot of Coleshill pigs exhibited at the last Smithfield Club Cattle- 
Show, belonging to the Earl of Radnor, aged twenty-one weeks, 
which had been fattened on forty-eight bushels of barley-meal and 
six bushels of potatoes, with an adequate quantity of whey. 
Wherever, therefore, there are large dairies, swine may be most 
advantageously kept, the excellence of dairy-fed pork being incon- 
testable. 

WASH, GRAINS, AND REFUSE OF BREWERIES AND DISTILLERIES. 

The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries and 
distilleries, may also be given to swine with advantage, and seem to 
induce a tendency to lay on flesh, but not in too large quantities, or 
unmixed with other and more substantial food; as, although they 
gain flesh rapidly when fed on it, the meat is not firm, and nevef 
makes good bacon. 

Thaer advises that the refuse of brandy-distilleries should always 
be diluted with water at first, otherwise the animals will reject it, or, 
if they take it, become giddy, and be unable to keep their feet , 



180 THE HOG. 

afterwards, the quantity of this food may be grad lally increased till 
they are completely accustonied to it. Neuenhahn says that the 
refuse of the brandy-distillery cannot be given to the pigs too warm, 
or too soon after its removal from the still, and that it never heats 
their blood ; but that, if it be allowed to get cold and stale, it is 
rather injurious than beneficial to them. On the other hand, many 
experienced distillers, who fatten large numbers of hogs, assure us 
that it requires great attention, and the employment of a man on 
whose care we can rely, to prevent this residue from being given 
to the animals while too warm, for it is then that it injures and 
materially retards their growth. It should be sometimes thick, 
sometimes diluted with water, and at others mixed with meal or 
pollard, in order, by thus varying the food, to keep up the appetite 
of the animals. 

RESIDUE OF STARCH MANUFACTORIES. 

The residue of the manufacture of starch, the products of the va- 
rious washings which this precaution involves, and the refuse of 
wheat, are far superior to brewers' and distillers' refuse. Hogs fed 
upon these articles fatten more quickly, produce fii-mer flesh, more 
substantial bacon, and a greater quantity of lard. At first the 
animals will often eat these matters with great avidity, and even to 
excess, and when this is the case they invariably become disgusted 
and refuse them after a time. The quantity must therefore be care- 
fully regulated, and the troughs kept very clean. If this kind of 
food be used alternately wnth one of a different nature, the fattening 
will be effected with greater certainty. The quantity of this refuse 
collected at once is often greater than can be consumed at the time, 
and it is difficult to store it up, because its animal portions so soon 
putrefy. The only mode of preservation is to dry it, make it into 
cakes, and bake it. 

VEGETABLES AND ROOTS. 

Cabbage and lettuce-leaves, turnip-greens, and bean and pea-hauln. 
may be given to pigs in moderate quantities with advantage, but 
these substances should be chopped up small and mingled in the 
wash, as the animals, being very fond of such food, will otherwise 
devour it too ravenously to be able properly to masticate it. 

Almost all our common roots are well adapted for feeding pigs ) 
carrots, turnips, parsnips, beet-root, and last, but not least, the potar- 
to, are all exceedingly nutritive, even when given in a raw state, but 
that cooking tends materially to increase their nourishing powers is 
a fact well attested by numerous experiments and general experi^ 
ence. Potatoes should be steamed, the other roots boiled. Id 
Guernsey the parsnip is extensively used in the feeding of pigbi 



FEEDING. 181 

espejiAlly from September to Christmas, and eight perches v;f land, 
each producing on the average 250 lbs. of this root, are considered 
as the general allowance for fattening a pig in store order. But the 
flesh of animals thus fed is not so firm as that of pigs fed on pea or 
barley-meal with a slight addition of corn, and shrinks when boiled, 
instead of plumping. Carrots are considered by some persons to 
fatten swine more rapidly than any other root, and to impart a par- 
ticularly delicate flavor to the flesh ; they may be given raw. 
Potatoes are, however, the staple food in by far the greater part of 
England, and the whole of Ireland. They should be steamed, and 
then mashed with meal or pea-flour in whey or sour milk (where it 
can be had,) or in wash or clear water, and made of the consistence 
of porridge. The water in which the potatoes have been cooked 
should always be thrown away. This root should, however, only be 
given for a short time, as it is by no means a rapid fittener, and 
does not make firm good fat, — and never alone if it can be avoided. 
Turnips should never be given while any other kind of food can be 
obtained, as their effects are far from beneficial, and often quite the 
contrary. Beans and peas, both green, dried, and ground, or bruised 
and macerated, form excellent food. Peas are considered to produce 
firmer flesh, and to fatten quicker than beans. The gray pea is 
generally allowed to be the best adapted for swine, and to contain 
most nutrition. Experiments have been made with the blue pea; 
but hogs fed on it had always a tendency to diarrhoea. Every part 
of the pea, the haulm, the cods, and the peas themselves, may be 
used in feeding pigs. Sir John Sinclair found green beans also very 
advantageous food for swine; he gives preference to the Windsor 
bean, and advises that two or three successive crops of them should 
be sown in order to secure a constant supply from July until Sep 
tember. 

In the '■'■ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture''' we find an account of 
some experiments made with the view of testing the relative fatten- 
ing powers of carrots, potatoes, peas, wheat, and buckwheat. 

Five couples of pigs were separately put up to fatten : — 

Increase of Weight. 

To couple 1 was given 55 decalitres of peas - - - 315 lbs. 

2 " 283 " balls of wheat - 33!) lbs. 

" 2 " 96 " buckwheat - - 374 lbs. 

" 4 " 98 " boiled potatoes - 284 lbs. 

" 5 " 175 •' carrots - - - 394 lbs. 

These results of the experiment are, however, unsatisfiictory, be- 
cause it is not mentioned whether the pigs >Ycre all of the same age 
and weight, nor is it stated whether the quantity of food marked in 
the tible was as much as the pigs could consume. 

We have always believed that peas were the most nutritious food 
that could be given to pigs, and this experiment confirms the belief] 



182 THE HOG 

as may be scon on comparing tha relative increase of iveight ob 
tained from the various kinds of food, viz.: — 55 decalitres of peas 
gave an increase of 22 stone 7 lbs., or nearly 6 lbs. of increase of 
pork from 1 decalitre of peas ; whereas from boiled carrots only 28 
stone 2 lbs. of increase were obtained from 175 decalitres, or about 
2^ lbs. from 1 decalitre, giving the advantage over the peas in the 
ratio of 2|-: 1. The fiext most nourishing food is buckwheat, which 
nearly gives 4 lbs. of pork from 1 decalitre. Boiled potatoes are 
next, giving nearly 3 lbs. of pork from 1 decalitre; and the lowes-. 
quantity of pork is that obtained from the balls of wheat, which is 
as low as 1 lb. from 1 decalitre. Flour would no doubt fatten bel 
ter than wheat, especially if the feeds were made into small dry- 
balls of dough, and frequently administered. 

FRUITS. 

With the exception of the acorn we have seldom a sufficiently 
abundant crop of fruit of any kind to admit of our making it an 
article of food for swine. When England was rich in forest land, 
the mastage or pannage of swine in these localities was a valuable 
privilege, for if the animals did not absolutely get fat, they were 
kept in fair condition at no expense to the owner beyond that of pay- 
ing a person to look after them. 

Hogs will eat the acorns and beech-mast greedily, and certainly 
thrive to a certain extent on this food, so far that it is an easy 
matter to fatten them afterwards. Parkinson says : — " When I 
lived with my father, acorns were so plentiful in the woods one 
year, that they made the pigs sufficiently fat for bacon without any 
other food. The flesh was equally as good and as well-flavored as 
that of other animals that had been fed on beans and peas." Acorns 
that have become dry in the sun and air are far more profitable 
than those which are fresh fallen and green ; but the way in which 
they may be most advantageously employed is to bake or roast 
them, and then crush them, and either boil them to a pulp, or pour 
boiling water upon them and let it stand until cool ; the addition of 
a little salt makes an exceedingly palatable food, which the animals 
greedily suck up, and which tends far more to fatten them than the 
raw acorn would. 

Beech-mast eaten alone makes the tat oily and impoverishes the 
lean, but when taken in conjunction with acorns the one fruit quali- 
lies the other, and the combined effect is good. 

In many parts of the Continent where chestnuts are grown in 
large quantities they constitute a considerable item In the feeding of 
swine, and are exceedingly nutritious, especially when given at the 
latter part of the fattening process. They impart firmne^js and a 
delicate flavor to the meat. Few persons give chestnuts in a rav 



ITEEDING. 183 

fltate ; ^Jiey are either roasted in an oven or macerated in boiling 
water. The same reason may be given here as will apply to all 
kinds of roots and fruits, not only when used as food for svvine, but 
also for other animals, and even for the human being ; they are 
rendered more digestible by cooking, divested of their crudeness^ 
and thus better calculated to nourish the system without fatiguing 
or disordering its powers. Besides which there is a decided saving 
effected. Some even go so far as to calculate that cooked, or 
ground, or bruised food, goes as far again as that which is given in 
its natural state or merely cut up. 

In America, where there is an abundance of apples and pump- 
kins, thes'e fruits are given to swine : we quote an account related 
by a great breeder of these animals, who attaches much value to 
these two articles of food, which seems to testify their utility : — 

" On the 10th of October twenty swine were put up to fatten, all 
of which were only in middling store order, in consequence of 
the scarcity of feed. The cows producing very little wash from the 
dairy, and the crop of apples being scanty this season, nothing had 
been given them during summer but a small orchard containing 
one acre and a-half of land (with the premature apples which fell,) 
in which was a pond of water, a very essential requisite to hogs, and 
one to which, under the powerful influence of the sun, they will re- 
sort for their chief comfort. 

"The above twenty swine were divided into three lots and closely 
confined ; we proceeded to fatten them by steaming 4 bushels of 
small potatoes, 12 bushels of apple pomace, 4 bushels of pumpkins, 
and 1 cwt. of buckwheat cornel, addinoj a little salt, the whole beins 
well incorporated together while hot from the steamer, with a 
wooden pounder, and suffered to undergo fermentation before it was 
jsed as food : they were at the same time supplied with plenty of 
■)harco;d and pure water. While feeding them with the first steamer 
of the compound, a more than ordinar}' moisture was observed on 
their litter, which was occasioned by urine; a knowledge of animal 
nature convinced the owner that any more than ar. ordinary flow 
would weaken the system, and retard the progress of fattening; and 
lie attributed this evil to the steamed pumpkins acting as a diu- 
retic, stimulating the kidneys and increasing the evacuation of urine. 
In the next steamer, therefore, 4 bushels of rata-bafja were substi- 
tuted for the pumpkins, which had the desired effect. This expe- 
riment afforded proof that a mixture thus compounded contains a 
large mass of nutritive material ready prepared for the action of 
the stomach, and therefore producing flesh more rapidly than any 
other combination of food made use of. All the waste apples 
being used up, and there being a greater quantity of soft corn on 
hand than usual, that was given to the hogs, but instead of their 
eondition improving they fell oif, and the owner was under the 



184 THE HOG. 

necessity of procuring two leads of apple pomace from his neio-h- 
bors, and commencing the steaming and feeding again; it was 
continued with the same good effect until eight days before the 
animals were killed, during which latter period they were fed with 
sound corn ; they were slaughtered on the 1st of December. The 
expense of fattening and the produce of pork were as follow** — 

Dr. Dolls, eta. 

32 bushels of small potatoes, at 25 cts. ... 8 00 

32 bushels of ruta-baga, including pumpkins, at 25 cts. 8 00 

10 bushels of soft corn, at 50 CIS, ... 5 00 

10 cwt. of buckwheat, at $1 per cwt ... 10 00 

20 bushels of sound corn, at 80 cts. ... 16 00 



Cr. Dolls. Cts. 

By 40 cwt. of pork, at $7^ per cwt. . 300 00 
Deduct expense, .... 47 00 



47 25 



Balance, . . 252 75." 

It is true that we have not often a superabundance of apples; but 
still in years when the crop is plentiful, the windfalls, diseased or 
injured apples, and the refuse left after the making of cider, may be 
given to the pigs, and will prove a fair substitute for more expensive 
food, if not in itself peculiarly advantageous; especially when eco- 
nomy in the keep is more studied than a rapid system of fattening. 

Nuts should never be given to swine; they make the fat soft and 
greasy, and impart a sweet, unpleasant flavor to the flesh. Pigs are, 
however, exceedingly fond of them ; so much so, that when they can 
get nuts they care little to touch any other kind of food. 

GRAIN. 

There is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in every way 
adapted for the purpose of fattening, as are the various kinds of 
grain ; the only drawback is that they are too expensive to be used 
to any great extent for this purpose, otherwise no animal should 
be considered as properly fattened unless some kind of grain had 
been given during the latter part of the time; as nothing tends more 
to create a firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh. It has been 
calculated that for every bushel, half of peas, and half of barley. 
th:it a hog eats, it gains from nine to ten or eleven pounds of flesh. 

Two pigs of about eight months old, were purchased and put up 
to fatten on the 2od of December, 1834 ; they then weighed 310 
lbs. They were put into a warm sty and fed on rye and corn-meal, 
having three regular feeds per diem, of two quarts each, up to the 
foilowiuijj October, when they received three quarts at each feed, o? 



FEEDING. 



185 



nine quarts a-dav for about a month. From that time until the 7th 
of December, 1835, a period of f.ve weeks, their feeds were raised 
another quart, making now twelve quarts a-day. Besides this they 
had the refuse of the milk of two cows, and occasionally a very 
little green meat. When slaughtered, they weighed 1134 lbs., which, 
allowing for one-third of offal, will amount to the gain of about SJ 
bs. of live weight per day. They ate in the whole, fifty bushels 
f rye and corn ground ; in cold weather it was scalded and given 
to them warm, and in the summer, put into the trough and milk 
poured upon it. {The Cultivator, vol il) 

There are also repeated instances in which the animals have ni 
creased in weight 2 lbs., 2^ lbs., and even 3 lbs. a day, while fed on 
barley-meal only, or barley -meal and peas, or potatoes ; the relative 
prices however, of grain and pork will always decide the question 
of the' advantage of ^this mode of feeding far better than volumes of 
experiments or comments. 

Barley and oats are considered to be best adapted for fattening 
swine. 'Some persons give the preference to oats, and where the 
grain is given whole they certainly are more digestible and less 
heating; but ground barley or barley meal is universally allowed to 
be the most nutritious of all food. 

There are various ways of giving grain to swine:— Raw and dry, 
roasted or malted, bruised and macerated, boiled, green, md growey 
or germinating wheat; and, lastly, ground to mea'l or farina. Of 
these the first two are the least advantageous, as the grain is then 
often but imperfectly masticated, and consequently produces indi- 
gestion. Wherever it is thus given the animals must be well sup- 
plied with water. A little whole grain given once a-day, or every 
other day, to pigs fed on barleymeal, is considered to be beneficial 
and add to the firmness of the flesh. 

Macerated grain is better, or rather would be if the animals would 
eat it freely, which they seldom will do. Its fattening properties are 
increased if, after maceration, it is suffered to lie and germinate, and 
then dried or malted ; or left to stand in the water until the whole 
turns sour. 

Many persons consider that grain boiled until the husk bursts is 
better adapted for feeding swine in this form than when ground, and 
is likewise more economical; the only difference, however, in this 
latter respect, will depend upon whether the expense of having it 
ground be greater or less than that of the fuel necessary to boil it. 

it is our opinion that the best, most economical and advantageous 
form in which grain can be used, is that of meal moistened with 
water, whey or sour or skim-milk, into a kind of soup or porridge. 
The fluid, whatever it may be, which is in the first place poured upon 
it, should never be more than lukewarm, and had better be quite 
cold ; hot or boiling liquid will cause the meal to conglomerate intc 



186 THE HOG, 

lumps of paste, not easily dissolved, and very likely to bring on in 
digestion. The Rev. Arthur Young, in his work on flittening cattlft 
and swine, gives the following directions as to the best method of 
employing this kind of food : — "The most profitable method of con. 
verting corn of any kind into food for hogs, is to grind it into meal, 
and mix this with water in cisterns, in the proportion of five bushels 
of meal to one hundred gallons of water; stir it well several times 
a-day, for three weeks in cold weather, or for a fortnight in -a warmer 
season, by which it will have fermented well and become acid, till 
which time it is not ready to give. It should be stirred immediately 
before feeding. Two or three cisterns should be kept fermenting in 
succession, that no necessity may occur of giving it not duly pre- 
pared. The difference in profit between feeding in this manner, and 
giving the grain whole, is very great, so great that whoever tries it 
once will not be apt to change it for the common method." 

Thaer informs us that ground corn or coarse meal made into sour 
dough (by mixing the farina or meal with warm water and a little 
yeast, and then suffering it to stand in a high temperature until it 
turns sour, which it will do in the course of a day,) is a better anr" 
more profitable mode of feeding swine on grain than any other. A 
portion of the sour dough is then softened with water and given to 
the pigs, with a small portion of ground corn or barleymeal stirred 
up in it. The animals relish this food exceedingly, and thrive rapidly 
upon it; but if the dough is given alone, although they seem to 
make flesh as quickly, the meat is flabby and the fat porous. Peas 
might be added instead of the farina or meal, or a little whole barley 
or oats. 

The same author likewise says : — "Some persons appears to be 
exceedingly successful in fattening their pigs on bread made of 
coarse rye or barleymeal. They cut this bread in pieces, dry it in 
an oven, then soak it in water, mash it, and give it to the animals in 
the form of porridge. Where sour milk or whey can be substituted 
for water, this food is said to surpass all others for quickness and 
efficacy in fattening, and for the goodness of the flesh and fat it 
produces." 

Indian corn has latterly been employed in England with great 
success in feeding swine, and that it is highly nutritive and well 
adapted for the purpose there can be no questi(ni ; here, as in most 
cases, the price will in a great measure decide the advantage or non- 
advantage of using it. 

]\Iaize is equal if not superior to any kind of grain for fattening, 
and is extensively used on the Continent, in Europe, and in America, 
where this article can readily be obtained. The best way is to give 
it quite at the latter end of the fattening period in small quantities 
as a handful or a few ears. It may be giv,5n in its natural state, aa 
pigs are so fond of it that they will eat up every seed. The pork 



SOILING AND PASTURING SWINE. 181 

and bacon of animals that have been thus fed is peculiarly firm and 

solid. 

Rice is another valuable adjunct in fottening swine ; we will quote 
in support of its properties the following account, given by an 
amateur pig-breeder: — 

" We purchased from the government stores several tons of dam- 
aged rice at a very cheap rate ; with this we flittened our pigs, and 
such pork I never saw before or since ; the fat was as firm and solid 
as the lean, and the flavor of the meat very superior. 

" The way in which the rice was prepared for food was as follows : 
My copper held forty gallons ; in the afternoon it was filled or nearly 
so, with water ; as soon as the water boiled, the fire was raked 
out, two pails of rice immersed in the w\ater, and the whole covered 
closely down and left to stand until the morning. On the following 
day the copper was emptied of its contents, which consisted of a thick 
jelly, so firm as only to be taken out with a shovel ; and on these 
contents the pigs were fed. The eflfect was perfect. 

"As to the economy of the plan, that of course must be a matter 
dependent upon circumstances ; we found it more profitable thar- 
almost any other kind of food we could have given, from the price 
at which we were able to purchase the rice, and its goodness. From 
some slight experiments, 1 am induced to think that equal parts of 
rice jelly and mashed potatoes would constitute an excellent food." 

Another person who tried rice as a food for pigs put up two weigh- 
ing 70 lbs. each, and fed them entirely on equal parts of boiled rice 
and steamed potatoes. At first they progressed but slowly, but event- 
tually attained the weight of 210 lbs. each. Their flesh was 
fine and delicate, the fat white and firm, and the flavor of both was 
excellent. 

Under the head of grain some writers consider beans,^ peas, 
and tares ; we have already spoken of the first two when treating of 
vegetables, and given it as our opinion that pea-meal is little if at all 
inferior to barley and oatmeal. The addition of a few dry peas to 
the porridge made of barleymeal and whey is advantageous ; and 
many persons consider good 'pea-soup to be equal to any thuig m its 
fattening powers. 

Bi-an or polhird, unmixed with any flirinaceous particles, conduces 
but little to fatten an animal ; it has been considered that fermenta- 
tion will increase and develop their nutritive properties, but we 
should be sorry to be compelled to rely solely on either of these 
two substances. 

SOILING AND PASTITRINQ SWINE. 

We have already spoken of the advantage of a run at grass to 
swine of all ages, and permanent pastures are those best adapted to 



1S8 THE HOG. 

this purpose. Soiling, or feeding pigs on cut green nieat, has also its 
advantages, and is very -much practised wherever there are crops 
and facilities for so doing. The best artificial grasses and green meat 
for swine are clover, lucerne, chicory, sainfoin, vetches, tares, and 
bean and pea-haulm. Some persons feed their swine on these matters 
in the fields ; but it is a far better practice to turn them into yards or 
small enclosures, and there have the green meat brought to them, aa 
by this means the animals are not able to wander about so much, 
exhausting their strength, and feeding in a desultory manner, but are 
kept quiet, and their dung more concentrated, especially if good 
litter or earth is laid down to receive and absorb it. 

This feeding on greet meat for awhile cools and purifies the blood, 
and Ixceps the animals in fair store condition, though it tends but 
very little to fatten them : where it is intended that it shall perform 
that office as well, it must not be simply cut green from the field and 
thrown to them, but chopped up small and salted, and mixed with the 
screenings of corn, or pollard, or meal, or roots, and moistened with 
some kind of w^ash and left to ferment. 

Clover, hay, or dried vetches may be also given to swine, chopped 
up small, and in wash; the former with undoubted advantage, for 
clover and lucerne are allowed to be exceedingly nutritive to swine; 
but many persons consider vetches, whether green or dried, as 
heating. 

ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 

There cannot be a doubt but that these are highly fattening in their 
nature, and also that swine, being somewhat allied to the carnivora, 
will greedily devour them ; but the question is, Do they not tend to 
make the flesh strong and rank, to inflame the blood, to create in the 
animals a longing for more of such food, and thus lead them to 
destroy fowls, rabbits, ducks, and even the litters of their compan- 
ions ? Many w^ill give blood, entrails, scraps of refuse meat, horse- 
flesh, and such like, to swine, but we should decidedly discourage 
such practices ; the nearest approach to animal food we would admit 
should be pot-liquor, and dairy refuse. Animal food is bad for every 
kind of swine; and tends to make them savage and feverish, and 
often lays the foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR FEEDING AND FATTENING. 

Regular hours of feeding rank among the first of the rules which 
otight to be observed ; the pigs will soon learn to expect their meals 
at certain times, and the stomach will be ready for it; irregularity 
will therefore irritate the digestive powers, and prevent so much 
benefit being derived from the meal when it does come. 



DIRECTIONS FOR FEEDING. iSO 

Small meals, and many of them, are preferable to few and large 
ones, fcr swine are very apt to gorge and over-eat themselves, or, if 
any be left in the trough, to return to it by fits and starts until it is 
all gone; in both cases tlie digestive functions are impaired, and the 
process is not fully and beneficially performed. The best remedy 
for indigestion is to let the animals fast for four-and-twenty hours, 
and then to give them a small quantity of dry food, as barley or 
peas, whole and salted, and let them fast four or five hours more 
before resuming their usual food. 

Pigs always eat more when first put up to fatten than they do 
afterwards; therefore the most nutritious food should be reserved 
until they are getting pretty fat. And at that period the food must 
be varied, for the appetite being diminished, it becomes necessary to 
excite it by variety ; and, besides, the same aliment constantly given 
palls upon the stomach, and is incapable of supplying in itself all 
the various kinds of nutriment required by the increased and altered 
state of the body. 

It will be found advantageous occasionally to mingle a little sul 
phur or powdered antimony with the food of swine put up to fatten ; 
about half an ounce once in ten days will usually be sufficient. 
These medicines tend to purify the blood, facilitate digestion, ar.d 
maintain the appetite. 

An American writer states that he has found gall-nuts, bruised 
and mingled with charcoal, to act most beneficially on the health of 
swine while being fattened; and also recommends that they should 
always be allowed to root in the earth of a small yard attached to 
the sty each day, and, if they will, eat some of the earth, which will 
be good for them. An intelligent writer in the " Quarterly Joarnal 
of Agriculture'^ states, that on the Duke of Montrose's estate, the 
pigs have ashes and cinders given them occasionally to correct the 
acidity of the stomach ; and that they are frequently turned out to 
a piece of ground sprinkled with lime, which they root in and eat; 
or else, if this is not possible on account of the weather, a little 
magnesia is now and then mingled in the milk. These simple pre- 
cautions are always more or less necessary to animals that are highly 
fed and have little or no exercise, and we should recommend them 
to the attention of all owners of pises. 

Cleanliness is another indispensable requisite. There is no idea so 
utterly without foundation as the common one "that pigs love dirt," 
and that these animals thrive best in the midst of filth. We will 
quote one anecdote out of the many which have come to our know 
ledge, in refutation of this absurd opinion: — "A gentleman in Nor- 
folk put up six pigs of almost exactly equal weight, and all in equal 
health, to fatten ; treated them, with one exception, all exactly the 
same. «nd fed them on similar food, given in equal quantities, to 
each, for seven weeks. Three of these pigs were left to shift fot 



190 THE HOG. 

themselves so far as cleanliness went, and the other ,hree were carf>. 
fully curried, brushed, and washed. These latter consumed in the 
seven weeks less food by five bushels than the other three, and yet, 
when killed, weighed more by 32 lbs. on the average." 

It should be the duty of some one person to keep the skins of the 
pigs put up to fatten — indeed we would rather say, of all the pigs 
kept — perfectly free from mud, dust, or filth of any kind ; and this 
will best be done by taking care that they always have clear water 
to bathe in within their reach, clean litter to lie upon, are occasion- 
ally combed and brushed, and that the sty is always kept free from 
filth. Nothing is so likely to engender lice and diseases of the skin 
as for it to be suflTered to remain in a dirty state. It is true that the 
maintenance of cleanliness will cost some trouble and expense, but 
every owner of pigs will best consult his own interests by attention 
to this point. 

The best period for fattening pigs is the autumn ; then almost 
every kind of food is to be had in plenty, as well as in perfection ; 
the weather is neither too hot nor too cold ; and the humidity gen- 
erally prevalent at this season acts beneficially upon the skin and 
tissues, and as it were lubricates the whole animal economy. Besides, 
they are ready to be slaughtered at the period when this can be done 
with most advantage ; when the lowness of the temperature allows 
more time, and consequently enables the owner to turn the flesh to 
the greatest advantage; whereas in hot weather the meat must be 
salted or pickled, eaten or disposed of immediately, or it turns off 
and is spoiled. In the immediate neighborhood of large towns alone 
will it be found advantageous to fatten pigs so as to have them ready 
to kill in the suminer; there the prices which can often be obtained 
may compensate the dealer for the difficulty and risk he undergoes ; 
but even the facilities atTorded by railways will hardly do this to 
those who reside in remote localities, as here the expense of the 
transit has to be added to the other items, and the risk is increased 
by close packing. 

The best kinds of food for fiittening pigs are : 

Milk or whey mixed with barley, oat, corn, or pea-meal, or with 
boiled and mashed potatoes. 

Potatoes and rice ; potatoes and meal of any of the above kinds, 
or mashed potatoes and whole grain. 

Peas given whole, or crushed, or in the form of soup, and either 
alone or mixed with barley-meal or potatoes. 

Carrots and parsnips; and especially boiled carrots, which some 
persons consider to be the most nutritious and fattening food that 
can be giver to swine. 

Pasturage on clover, lucerne, or sainfoin, or a run in the stubble 
of corn-fields immediately after the crop has been cut and got in. 



GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 191 

Beet-root and rutabaga are good; but should only be given 
when other roots cannot be easily obtained. 

And lastly, grain itself, as corn, barley, and oats, but not rye. 

An American correspondent gives the following recipe for " an 
exceeding nutritious food for hogs;" but it is one which circumstances 
will notoften permit us to make use of: — ''Boil Irish potatoes, 
pumpkins, and apples until they are soft ; mash them all together, 
taking care thoroughly to mix and incorporate them, and add a little 
salt to the compound ; swine will be fjund to relish this food highly, 
and thrive uncommonly well upon it." 

A small portion of salt should always be mingled in whatever 
food is given, as it tends to stimulate the appetite as well as the di- 
gestive functions ; and an ample supply of good water for drinking 
be kept within the reach of every animal. 

Indian corn, buckwheat, rice and maize, may doubtless be given 
with advantage, and are in themselves highly nutritious ; but they 
cannot be reckoned as among the kinds of food generally in use, as, 
unless under peculiar circumstances, they are too expensive, and not 
always to be obtained at all. 

Turnips, cabbage, lettuce, and beans, are not so much adapted for 
fiittening as the kinds of food above enumerated, although these 
matters often form valuable additions to the keep of store-pigs. 

THE REFUSE OF THE SLAUGHTER-HOUSE. 

Martin says: "The hog is an omnivorous animal, and will even 
greedily devour flesh and garbage; and butchers, and even others, 
are in the habit of feeding their hogs upon blood, entrails, offal meat, 
and similar matters. It is a disgusting practice, but, besides this, it 
is essentially wrong; such diet renders the animal savage and dan 
gerous, — a child accidentally straying within the reach of a hog thus 
fed, would be by no means safe from a ferocious assault; moreover, 
it keeps the animal in a state of feverish exciteinent, and leads to 
inflammatory diseases. 

"Again, as it respects the meat, 't is rank, coarse, and scarcely 
wholesome. Hogs are often kept m knackers' yards, where they 
revel in corruption. What must their flesh be ! 

THE REFUSE OF THE KITCHEN. 

"The same objections do not- apply to pot-liquor or kitchen refuse. 
for although there is ft good portion of fat, bits of meat and skia 
and the liquor in which meat has been boiled, still it has been cooked 
and is mixed with the peelings of potatoes, carrots, turnips, cabbage 
leaves, bread, milk. <kc.; &c., and forms an acceptable mess. 



192 THE HOG. 

THE REFUSE OF THE DAIRY. 

" The refuse of the dairy is noted for its importance, both in the 
fattening of porkers and bacon-hogs. The very term of ' dairy-fed 
poik' conveys an idea of delicacy; it has a pleasant sound. We 
associate it with the idea of meat pleasant to look upon and deli- 
cious to the taste, and not without cause : true dairy-fed pork is 
indeed a luxury ; it causes no indigestion and sits easily on the 
stomach. 

"The refuse of the dairy consists of butter-milk, whey, and skim- 
milk ; and these, mixed with the flour of steamed potatoes, Indian- 
corn, pea-meal, barley-meal, &c., constitute a diet of the most nu- 
tritious quality for fattening. Such food, however, should not be 
administered to store hogs ; it is decidedly a fattening diet, and 
hogs accustomed to it do not thrive well when it is withheld and 
inferior food substituted. No one indeed would think of supplying 
mere store hogs with such luxurious food. On this diet some of 
the fattest porkers of thirteen, fifteen, or twenty weeks old, have 
been reared, as well as bacon-hogs under the age of one year. 

THE REFUSE OF THE CORN-MILL. 

"The large miller finds swine a profitable stock. The very sweep- 
ings of the mill are thus made by the miller to return a profit ; he 
may not have to purchase whey, or butter-milk, or skim-milk, from 
the farmer, but the latter has to purchase barley-meal, &c., from 
the miller, or at least to pay him for grinding it. 

THE REFUSE OF THE STARCH MANUFACTORY. 

"Among Other substances available for swine is the refuse of the 
starch manufactory^ that is, of the grain or potatoes used in the pro- 
duction. It is said to be extremely nutritious, the animals fattening 
on it with great rapidity, and yielding very firm and substantial 
bacon. It is apt to cloy the appetite, and should be given alternately 
with food of a different quality ; indeed, in all cases, alternation of 
food is highly desirable, as the stomach palls upon one exclusive 
kind. The best method of preserving the paste deprived of the 
starch is to dry it. As is evident, it can only be employed locally 
and not generally ; it is said to be far superior to the refuse grains 
and wash of the brewery or distillery. 

THE REFUSE OF THE BREWERY AND DISTILLERY. 

*'IIogs are usually kept in considerable numbers by the proprietors 
of large breweries and distilleries; nevertheless these refuse grains 



VEGETABLES. 193 

and wash are not well adapted for sound fattening, unless mixed oi 
alternated with other food, as pollard, barley-meal, &c. It is true 
that the animals become in good apparent condition, but their fat 
is flabby, and does not swell on being boiled, as the fat of good 
bacon ought to do. 

" With respect to the refuse of the distilleries, especially the wash, 
it ought to be very cautiously given ; if allowed too liberally, the 
animals reel from intoxication, until they are accustomed to it, and 
we cannot but think its influence upon the healthy condition of the 
animals to be injurious. 

" This wash is not a natural food ; it is not one which they will at 
first take willingly, nor can we regard it as beneficial ; the pigs may 
indeed beconie bloated, but not covered with firm solid fat ; it must 
impair their digestive powers, and render the liver torpid and per- 
haps swollen ; mixed with water and barley-meal, or othei- farina- 
ceous food, it may be admissible, but this is the best that can be 
said of it. 

GREEN AND DRIED VEGETABLES. 

"There are many vegetables used in the feeding of pigs, amongst 
which may be enumerated clover, sainfoin, lucern, chicory, tares, 
vetches, pea-haulm, cabbages, turnip-tops, &;c.; it is desirable that 
these, when given, should be cut up small, and mixed with the wash, 
— indeed, simply cirt up, with a little salt scattered among it, and 
occasionally mixed with a little pollard, it constitutes a good diet 
for store pigs, where the aim is not to fatten them, but to keep 
them in fair condition. Indeed, it is not advisable to render store 
pigs too fat or high in flesh ; they grow larger, and their symmetry 
is better developed, by moderate diet than by full feedino^, and 
afterwards, when put up to fatten for bacon, they thrive rapidly on 
the increased quantity and quality of the nutritnent. 

" Clover or lucern hay, cut up small and mixed with the wash, is 
also recommended, and, where it is practicable, an occasional or in- 
deed a frequent run on good grass lands tends to the advantage of 
the animals. There are some wild plants, as the sow-thistle {son- 
ckus) and others, of which swine are very fond; yet it would appear 
that these animals, omnivorous as they are, are choice in the selec- 
tion of their vegetable flire, rejecting many plants on which the 
horse, ox, sheep, and goat will feed with avidity. It is remarkable 
that, although the hog will champ the fresh green shells of peas, it 
does not sv/allow the tough inner lining, and only drains away the 
saccharine juice, rejecting the rest. 

ROOTS. 

"Among the roots given to hogs in our island, potatoes take the first 
place. These should always be steamed and mashed, and mixed 



194- THE HOG. 

with whey or skhnmed milk, with the addition of middlings, barley 
meal, peas, &;c. Hogs, as we have previously intimated, however 
apparently well fed on potatoes, do not produce firm bacon which 
swells greatly in boiling. Hence potatoes ought to form a portion 
only of their diet, nor indeed are they essentially necessary. In the 
Channel Islands the store hogs are fattened almost entirely upon 
boiled parsnips, and they attain to an enormous size, yielding good 
bacon. Among other roots we may mention carrots, turnips, es- 
pecially Swedish turnips, and beet-root. All these roots should be 
boiled, but may be given raw, though not so advantageously. Car 
rots are hiijhly esteemed by many, and no doubt contain a conside- 
rable quantity of nutriment, and in addition to meal may be usee 
with advantage, especially when potatoes are dear and scarce, in 
consequence of a general failure in the crops. They might, even 
when given alone, with the addition of whey, or butter-milk, or skim- 
milk, make the animal reasonably fat, as in the instance of parsnip 
feeding, but we should doubt whether the quality of the bacon would 
prove first-rate. 

" The same observations apply to Swedish turnips, which are ex- 
tolled by some as superior to potatoes. 

" What will be the character of the bacon produced by such diet is 
another thing; an animal may be made fat, but the fat may be soft, 
oily, and waste in boiling. 

" No roots, without a due admixture of farinaceous food, as pollard, 
barley-meal, peas, &c., will produce first-rate bacon, and indeed in 
the finishing-off, or last stage of feedinor, it is better to omit the roots 
altogether, and give only peas, barley-meal, whey, &;c. The same 
observations apply to pork ; even young delicate dairy-fed pork re- 
quires to be finished ofl' on a mixture of farinaceous food with the 
refuse of the dairy, in order that the meat may acquire a due degree 
of firmness. In this respect, as well as in age, pork differs from the 
sucking-pig; in the la\ter, tenderness and succulency are in the ex- 
treme ; they render the young creature, when well cooked, one of 
the most delicate of 'all the delicacies.' 

GRAIN AND BEANS AND PEAS. 

"To dwell upon the nutritive qualities of grain in general would be 
useless. The value of barley-meal, middlings, mill-sweepings, &c., 
in the feediuir of hogs, is well known. It is true that this food is 
expensive, but then it is not used exclusively till the time for finish- 
ing off, or need not be ; and, what is more, the expense is repaid by 
the gain of the anijnal in weight, and by the great superiority of the 
meat, which will command its price in the nuirket. The rapid iii- 
crease in the weight of hogs fed upon barley-meal, peas, steamed 
potatoes, with whey or butter-milk, is astonishing. They have been 



grai:n. 195 

kr.owL to Increase at the rate of 3| lbs. (live weight) per day, and 
often at the rate of 2 or 1-J- lbs. Here is some remuneration certainly 
for extra expense, even if the finishing off' be entirely on meal and 
skim-milk. 

"There is only one legitimate way of giving barley and that is in 
the form of meal made into porridge with lukewarm*^ milk, whey, or 
water, to which potato-meal may be added or not, as is deemed 
desirable. To give the grain in a raw state, or even bruised, or in- 
fused in water till it begins to swell and germinate, is, we consider, 
very disadvantageous; it is, in fact, attended by two evils — in the 
first place, the greedy animal does not sufficiently grind down the 
food for the complete extraction of all its nutriment ; and, secondly, 
semi-charaped grain is liable to produce indigestion, ^oss of appetite, 
and fever. The same efl^ects are produced by mixing the ineal with 
boiling fluid, which converts it into a sort of dough or paste, very 
unfit for being taken into the stomach. 

" Some recommend that the meal be mixed with cold water in lar^e 
cisterns, the proportion being five bushels of meal to a hundred gal- 
lons of water. This mixture must be stirred several times a-day, 
for a fortnight or three weeks, until an imperfect fermentation takes 
pi ice, and it becomes acescent. In this state its fattening powers 
are said to be greatly increased ; but the ordinary way is to mix 
the meal wdth lukewarm water, or whey, or butter-milk (pea-meal 
or potato-flour being added or not), and give it in the form of a 
thick soup to the animals. Next to barley -meal, oat-meal may be 
ranked in order, and in some counties it is largely given. It may 
be made into a sort of thick gruel with wash or whey, dec, or it may 
be mixed with water, set to leaven, and given in an acescent state. 

" Maize takes a high rank among the grains used for feeding hogs. 
It is little, if at all, inferior to barley, and the animals are very fond 
of it. It may be ground into meal, or given in its natural state, 
after being soaked for some time in water, either akne, or in a wash, 
or in gruel. In many parts of Europe, and in America especially, 
where many varieties of maize or Indian corn are extensively culti- 
vated, the flesh of hogs, and also poultry, fed upon Indian corn, has 
a peculiarly fine flavor. 

'' Occasionally rice has been used for fattening hogs. One great 
objection to this article would be its expense, and we should not 
think it equal to barley-meal, although it abounds in nutriment. 
The proper way to prepare it is to put the rice into boiling water 
(two ordinary pailsful to about forty gallons of water), and let thd 
whole stand for several hours till ft is cold. The rice will then be 
found to have swelled amazingly, and to be compacted into a mass 
so firm as to admit of being taken out by means of a shovel. In 
this state it may be sriven to the hogs, eidier with whey, milk, &;c., 
or by itself: a certain po.'tion of potatoes mashed after steaming 



196 thp: hog. 

may be added. The flesh oftiogs fed on rice is said to have proved 
very superior. Peas and beans^ either in their green state, or dried 
and bruised, or ground into meal, are among the best articles of food 
for fattening swine. Pea-meal, or the meal of the gray pea, or gray 
peas bruised, are in the highest esteem. Pea-meal may be given 
faloiie, or added to the barley-meal, or to the steamed potatoes. 

''''Buckwheat is excellent for fattening hogs. With respect to rye 
little need be said ; occasionally hogs are fed upon rye-meal. 

SEEDS OF VARIOUS VEGETABLES, FRUITS, &C. 

^^Linseed cake, or oil-cake as it is called, is occasionally given to 
hogs, and sometimes linseed meal, or steeped linseed, but only in 
small quantities, and in addition to food destitute of oil, as potatoes, 
pea-meal, &c. Oil-cake is used largely in the fattening of horned 
cattle, but whether it is equally advantageous in the fattening of 
hogs is not very clear. 

'■'- Beechmast is eagerly devoured by hogs, and in places where this 
is abundant, it will be well to turn store hogs into it, or collect it 
for their use. It ie an article of diet not to be despised, but as an 
adjunct and not a principal article. But though hogs thrive on this 
food, it wnll not make firm fat, unless largely mixed with acorns. 

"A run in oak copses ought not to be neglected at the time of the 
fall, by a farmer who has the opportunity of sending his store hogs 
into the wood. 

" In England, chestnuts, as food for hogs, are out of the question. 
This is not the case, however, in many parts of the Continent, where 
these are abundant, and indeed where they form portions of woods. 
There the chestnut tree affords an abundant supply, both for men 
and swine, and the latter are bountifully supplied with it; it is sel- 
dom given raw, but roasted or steamed, or parboiled into a pulp, 
then crushed and divested of the outer shell. By the conversion of 
it into a potato-like meal, the nutritive qualities of this fruit are 
greatly improved, and it is thereby better fitted for the digestive 
action of the stomach. 

" With respect to apples, pumpkins, and even peeiches, which in 
some parts of America are lavishly given to swine, we have little to 
sny. Boiled apples mixed with potatoes, Indian-corn flour, or buck- 
wheat, will no d(3ubt prove nutritious, and in America constitute a 
cheap diet, but the case is different in England. In North Africa 
the wild-boar makes incursions into the melon-grounds, and we can 
conceive that melons, abounding with saccharine matter, are grateful 
to the palate of the wild hog, and so no doubt are apples, pumpkins, 
and peaches, but they do not enter into the English bill of fare for 
hogs. At the s^ime time, we object not to the plan of turning hogs? 
into apple orchards in order that they may pick up the fallen fruit. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PIGGERIES. 197 

"We may here notice a few other articles which do not coniC under 
any precise head. One of these is hay-tea^ or rather an infusion of 
clover, sainfoin, or lucern hay, which is by many recommended as an 
excellent vehicle for mixing with other food. It mav be thickened 
with potato-flour, steamed carrots, boiled cabbages, barlev or oat- 
meal, anc for store hogs, in particular, it is said to be excellent, not 
only as keeping the animals in first-rate condition, but as saving 
more expensive kinds of food which must otherwise be given. 

"Another arti<^le is salt. Salt is almost essential to health; it 
stimulates the appetite, it aids the operation of digestion, and all cat- 
tle are partial to it. A little salt should, therefore, be scattered into 
the food before it is given to the animal. 

" We must T^ot here exclude earth or calcarenus matters from our 
consideration. With the roots which a hog ploughs up in the ground 
and devours, a small quantity of earth is necessarily swallowed, the 
calcareous particles of which act beneficially by correcting any acid- 
ity in the stomach. Hogs put up to fatten, highly fed, and taking 
little or no exercise, are very liable to acidity of the stomach, and loss 
of appetite as a consequence. Many breeders, aware of this, give the 
animals occasionally ashes or cinders, which they champ and swallow; 
or turn them out now and then upon a patch of ground, over which 
lime or chalk has been freely sprinkled, in which they root and pick 
up morsels, which, with the lime and particles of earth, are.swallowed. 
It is not a bad plan to mix occasionally a little magnesia or chalk in 
the wash or milk ; this will very effectually correct acidity. Here 
then, we have another reason why a run, from time to time, in the 
field given to hogs is advisable ; with every root, every pig-nut that 
they swallow, they take in a portion of earth." 



CHAPTER XIII. 

0x1 the Proper Construction of Piggeries — Ventilation — Description of Mr. Henderson's Styes- 
Cooking Apparatus — Curious Contrivance for Feeding Pigs— Description of the Piggery at 
PrinceAlbert's Home Farm — Description of a Piggery at Lascoed — Advantages of Cieanli* 
ntrss — Pig-keeping in Mexico. 

There are few thinors more conducive to the thrivingr and well- 
being of swine than airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and, above 
all, cleanliness. The old prejudices — that any place was good 
enough to keep a pig in, and that filth and pig-styes were synony- 
mous terms — are nc^w passed away, and the necessity of attention 
to this branch of porcine economy generally recognized. 

Formerly swine were too often housed in damp, dirty, close, 



198 THE HOG. 

imperfectly built sheds; this was an error, and a fruitful source of 
disease, and of unthrifty animals. 

In large establishments where numerous pigs are kept, there should 
be divisions appropriated to all the different kinds of pigs ; the males. 
the breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the fattening pigs should 
all be kept separate ; and it were as well that in the divisions appro- 
priated to the second and last of these four classes, there should be 
a distinct apartment for each animal, all opening into a yard or 
enclosure of limited extent. As pigs require warmth, these build- 
ings should face the south, and be kept weather-tight and well 
drained. Good ventilation is also important, for it is needless to 
expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health unless they 
have a sufficiency of pure air. The blood requires it to give it 
vitality and free it from impurities, as nmch as the stomach requires 
wholesome and strengthening food, and when it has it not, becomes 
vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions. 

"The blood, the fountain whence the sph'Its flow, 
The generous stream that waters every part, 
And motion, vigor, and warm life conveys 
To every moving, breathing particle," 

becomes contaminated by those aerial poisons given out bv the 
decaying vegetable matter, rotten or damp litter, accumulatit^us of 
dung, and animal exhalations engendered by ill-ventilated styes. 
These noxious gases are inhaled by the breath, and absorbed by the 
skin, until they enter the circulation, and impair its vivifying fluid. 
It is by the action of the atmospheric air that venous blood is con- 
verted into arterial, freed from all its impurities, and rendered fit to 
sustain all the vital functions; hence it must be at once evident that 
if this important agent is in the first place contaminated, its action 
must be impaired and its effects empoisoned. Besides, bad smells 
and exhalations injure the flavor of the meat. 

Damp and cold flof)rs should also be guarded against, as they tend 
to induce cramp and diarrhoea ; and the roof so contKived as to carry 
off the wet from the pigs. 

The walls of a well-constructed sty should be of solid masonry ; 
the roof sloping, and furnished with spouts to carry off the rain ; 
the floors either slightly inclined towards a gutter made to carry ofl' 
the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or joists, and per- 
forated so that all urine and moisture shall drain ofl". Bricks and 
tiles are much used for the flooring of styes, but are objectionable, 
because, however well covered with litter, they still strike cold ; 
wood is flir superior in this respect ; as well as because it admits of 
those clefts or perforations being made which we have just recom> 
mended, and which not only serve to drain off all moisture, but 
admit fresh air as well. Tne value of the litter and dung as 



CONTRIVANCES FOR FEEDING. 199 

manure, must always be borne in mind, and all things :io arranged 
that none of it shall be wasted. 

The door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inwards 
or outwards, so as to give the animals free ingress and egress ; and 
to do this it should be hung across from side to side, and the animal 
push it up to effect its entry or exit ; for if it were hung in the usual 
way it would d'erange the litter every time it opened inwards, and 
be very liable to hitch. If it is not intended that the pigs shall leave 
their sty, there should be an upper and lower door, the former of 
which should always be left open when the weather is warm and 
dry, while the latter will serve to confine the animal. 

There should also be windows or slides which can be opened oi 
closed at will, to give admission to the fresh air, or exclude rain oi 
cold. 

Mr. Henderson's description of his styes is more lucid and practica> 
than mere vague directions, we will therefore give it in his owi 
words : — >" The plan which I recommend is as follows. Have a hous(N 
thirty feet by fifteen, with four doors all opening outwards, and three, 
partition walls through the house, viz., a wall between each of the 
doors, dividing the house into four compartments, llie two middle 
ones I use for eating-rooms, and the others for sleeping-apartments, 
liaving an inner door between each eating and sleeping-apartment. 
By this plan the keeper is enabled to get the eating-chambers swept 
out, the troughs cleaned, and the food put into them without dis- 
turbing the swine or being disturbed by them. There should be a 
division wall having a door in it through each sleeping-apartment', 
in the hinder part should be the litter; and the front and smallei 
compartment, through which the animals must pass to get to theii 
food, may be used by them as a kind of necessary, for these animals 
will never defile their beds if they can avoid it. 

" The following is the most convenient manger for their food. Let 
it be as long as the house is wide, and fixed against the middle wall ; 
in form similar to a horse manger, but not so deep, and it must be 
divided into twelve divisions by partition boards four feet in length 
or height, and a little broader than the manger is wide; thus a num- 
ber will feed as well and as quietly together as two or three. Be- 
fore every meal the trough should be well washed and the place swept, 
and once in the day a little fresh litter placed in the sleeping-cham- 
bers. Each of these sleeping and eating-rooms may be temporarily 
divided into two, should it be requisite. The sleeping-rooms should 
be dark, as animals fatten much more rapidly when they lie down 
and sleep after each meal than they do when they wander about. 
There should be a square yard to each piggery, well paved and 
drained, as should the styes also be ; and where it is possible, an 
enclosure or a small piece of ground adjoining is exceedingly useful. 
" Those who have space to admit of it will find it advantageous tc^ 



200 THE HOG. 

have five apartments instead of four, and in the fifth or central one 
to have a boiler to prepare the food, and chests and lockers to con- 
tain the various stores."' 

Parkinson advises that in the yard or enclosure before every pig- 
gery should be a '* rubbing-post, or, what is still more beneficial, two 
posts having a pole between them similar to a horse's leaping-bar, but 
not revolving; this pole should be raised or let down to the height 
of the pigs, as the rubbing of the animals against it causes a freer cir- 
culation of blood, the same as the flesh-brush does to human bodies." 

In all lai'ge establishments there should be a proper apparatus for 
cooking, mixing, and preserving the food. For this a boile* and 
steamer will be requisite, and some two or three tanks which may 
be made of bricks plastered over on the interior to prevent leakage, 
and fixed in the ground. Wherever it can be managed, the troughs 
should be so situated that they can be filled and cleaned from the 
exterior without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all, and 
for this purpose, the following very simple contrivance has been 
recommended : — " Have a flap or door with swinging hinges made 
to hang horizontally over the trough, so that it can be moved to and 
fro, and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of 
the manger. When the hogs have fed sufficiently, the door is swung 
inwards and fastened, and so remains until feeding-time, when the 
trough is cleaned and refilled without any trouble, and then the flap 
drawn back and the animals admitted to their food." Some persons 
cover the trough with a lid having as many holes in it as there are 
pigs to eat from it. This is by no means a bad plan, for then each 
pig selects his own hole and eats away without interfering with or 
incommodino- his neio-hbor. 

We are indebted to the kindness of a friend for the following ac- 
count of the Royal piggery, at the Home I* arm at Windsor. It 
consists of an oblong slated shed, of sufficient length and breadth to 
contain about two dozen sties, of somewhat larger dimensions than 
ordinary pig-sties, and arranged in two rows with a broad walk be- 
tween them, from which the spectator looks into the sties on the 
right and left of him. Each sty has an in-door and an out-door 
apartment, the former having a wooden coverlid to it, going upon 
hinges like the lid of a cornbin, instead of a roof, which may be raised 
to any height in hot or close weather, so as to admit any influx of air 
required, or even be thrown back if necessary. The sties are paved 
with brick, both within and without doors, and their floors slightly 
declivitous. 

The following is a description of a piggery at Lascoed Pont Senny, 
planned and executed by Mr. J. Donaldson, land steward to A. M. 
Storley, Esq., Brecon, South Wales: — This piggery is constructed 
fj>r the purpose of breeding and feeding on a scale to suit a farm of 
elx hundred acres of turnip soil in an inland situation, where conve- 



CONTRIVANCES FOR FEEDING. 201 

nient markets render easy the disposal both of fat and lean stock. 
There are seven sties at the end of the steaminij-house which acconi- 
modate a boar and six brood sows, w^hich are calculated to produce 
yearly one hundred pigs, sixty of which will be fattened from Sep. 
tember to April in fifteen sties, placed in two parallel rows, and made 
to contain two hogs in each apartment. The rest are sold as stores. 
The yearly rental is from 200/. to 250/. accoi-ding to the prices of 
the produce. The steamed food consists of potatoes and meal, with 
grain to finish, and is conveyed to the sties along a paved road or 
path, m a small four-wheeled wagon. The steamer also cooks pota- 
toes for the working horses, and chafl:' for milch cows, and thus applies 
the original cost to several purposes, and fully employs a man. The 
store pigs are fed in summer with clover and vetches, and m winter 
with roots either raw or steamed. Water is brought to the steam- 
iiig-house in a pipe from the farm-yards, which are all supplied by 
ball-cocks from elevated casks fed by a forcing-pump. A pipe under- 
neath conveys the water from the potato-washer to the pond in the 
store-yard, where it passes to the lovver curve of the yard, and then 
meeting with the collected moisture of the whole area of the pig- 
gei-y, falls through an iron grate into a paved culvert, and is conveyed 
to the manure-pit, to which the liquid of the farmery is collected and 
brought by a drain ; along the side of the road are sheds opening 
into the store-yard. The cost of erecting a piggery like this will 
vary from 80/. to 100/., according to the price of labor and mate- 
rials, and to whether the roofs be tiled or slated. The steaming- 
house has an upper floor to serve as a store-house for grain, meal, 
roots, &c. 

The piggery should always be built as near to that part of the 
establishment from which the chief part of provision is to come as 
possible, as much labor will thus be saved. If the dairy is to supply 
this, let it be as near as may be to that building; or if it is to come 
from a brewery or distillery, then let it be near to them. 

Care must also be taken to preserve the dung and urine, and some 
place fixed in which these matters can be stored for manure. Wher 
ever the swine are regularly and well managed, this will not be diffi- 
cult, for the animals will always, if they can, lay their dung at a 
distance from the place where they sleep or feed. A small paved 
yard, somewhat sloping, and with a gutter to serve as a receptacle, 
will best answer this purpose, and thence it can be daily removed to 
the proper heap or tank. 

We have been told of a gentleman who keeps only a few pigs for 
his own use, and has a double sty for them, by which means he is 
enabled to keep them exceedingly clean and sweet. Every morning 
the pigs are changed from one into the other, so that each sty 
remains unoccupied for f )ur-and-twenty hours, during which time it 
is thoroughly cleaned out, and of course becomes well aired, and free 



202 THE HOG. 

from all unpleasant smell. And well do we remember the pleasure 
with which we used to view the pigs and sties of an old friend of 
ours, no'^ no more. A door leading out of his beautiful flov/er- 
garden brought us to those equally well-tended objects of his pride. 
The sties were always kept whitened on the inside ; the sloping floor 
carried off all moisture to a deep gutter running between the sty 
and the square-paved yard, each of which inclined towards it; a 
trough ever stood with water clear as crystal for them to drink, and 
the animals themselves were, by washing, currycombing, and perfect 
cleanliness about them, as neat and sleek as a lady's lap dog. They 
were, in fact, pet pigs. Nor are we without pleasurable reminis- 
cences of delicate spare ribs, loins, and legs of pork, and delicious 
sucking-pigs. 

W^ashings, combings, and brushings, are valuable adjuncts in the 
treatment of swine ; the energies of the skin are thus roused and the 
pores opened, consequently the healthful functions are aided, and that 
inertness so likely to be engendered by the lazy life of a fattening 
pig counteracted. We cannot close this chapter without quoting the 
following account of the mode of keeping pigs in Mexico : — 

" Fine breeds of these useful animals are kept by many persons 
of wealth, as an article of trade, in the city of Mexico ; and the care 
and attention paid to their cleanliness and comfort so far exceed any 
thing I have seen elsewhere, that a short account may be useful by 
furnishing hints to our ftirmers, brewers, distillers, &c., by whom 
large numbers of these valuable animals could be and are conveni 
ently kept. The premises where the business is carried on are ex 
tensive, consisting in general of a good dweMing-house, with a shop, 
slaughter-house, and places for singeing the pigs, large bowls for 
rendering the lard, salting and drying-rooms, and lard-rooms, with 
wooden bins for containing the rendered fat, which is an article of 
great consumption in Spanish cookery, being used as a substitute for 
butter. There is also a soap manufactory, in which the offal fat is 
manufactured, and apartments where the blood is made into a kind 
of black-pudding, and sold to the poor. Behind all these are the 
sties for the hogs, generally from eight hundred to one thousand in 
number, which occupy a considerable range of well-built sheds about 
thirty feet deep, with the roofs descending very low, and having the 
entrance through low arches, before which is an open space the whole 
length of the yard, and aoout twenty-four feet wide, in the centre 
of which is a kind of aqueduct built of stone, and filled with clear 
water supplied from a well at the end of the premises. The hogs 
can only put their noses into this water through holes in the wall, 
which prevents their dirtying it, as it passes through the whole 
division of the yard. This is the only liquid given them, and their 
food is maize or Indian corn, slightly moistened, and scattered at 



GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HOG. 208 

stated hcurs on the. ground, which in the yard, as well as the place 
where they sleep, is kept perfectly dry and clean. They are attend- 
ed by Indians with every possible care. There is a cold bath on the 
premises, which they are obliged frequently to use, as cleanliness is 
corsidered essential to their acquiring that enormous load of fat from 
which the principal profit is derived. Their ease and comfort seem 
also in every respect to be studiously attended to ; and the occupation 
of two Indian lads will cause a smile on the countenances of my 
musical readers, when they are informed that they are employed 
from morning till night in settling any disputes or little bickerings 
that may arise among the happy inhabitants of this community, 
either in respect to rank or condition, and in singing them to sleep. 
The boys are chosen for the strength of their lungs, and their taste 
and jadgraent in delighting the ears and lulling the senses of this 
amiable harmonic society ; they succeed each other in chanting 
during the whole day, to the great delight and gratification of their 
bristly audience, who seem fully to appreciate the merits of the 
performers." Martin says : — 

"Any place is thought good enough for a pig, no matter how 
dark, damp, or filthy it may be, and in such places we have seen 
pigs kept. But what has been the consequence ? — Diseases of the 
skin, swellings of the joints, dullness, and loss of eager, healthy ap- 
petite ; often, after being slaughtered, the intestines are found in- 
fested by parasitic worms. So far from any place being good 
enough for a pig, much of the animal's health and ultimate profit' 
ableness depend on the domicile in which it is kept. For those who 
keep only one or two pigs, a well-built wind and waterproof sty or 
shed for a dormitory, in an inclosure for air and exercise as large 
as convenient, will suffice. The feeding-trough should be made of 
stone, as wooden troughs are liable to be gnawed, and are often 
knocked over when half full of food by the snout of the pig, either 
by accident or in wantonness. It would be well also to give the 
animal access to a stone receptacle of clean water; for though much 
water should not be given to a pig during the progress of fatteniug, 
still the animal should never be allowed to suffer from thirst; no- 
thing tends more than thrist to derange the digestive organs, and 
prevent the animal from thriving. The floor of the whole sty and 
yard should be well paved with brick, and incline to a drain, both 
for the sake of dryness and facility of cleaning. The manure, liquid 
as well as more solid, should be put into a manure-pit for the future 
benefit of the garden. A sufficient quantity of straw should be 
spread on the floor of the dormitory, and all should be clean, even 
the trough, which should be washed out every day. The door should 
oe made to open inwards ; otherwise, if not very strongly secured, 
it is liable to be forced open by the animal, and much mischief raay 



2'>4: THE HOG. 

be done in the garden before any one is aware of it. Pigs are very 
fond of rubbing their sides and shoulders against convenient objects, 
and this, as it excites the circulation of the blood in the vessels of 
the skin, is very beneficial ; hence, a short stout post driven into the 
ground, by one of the side walls of the little yard or inclosure, 
would be a serviceable and unexpensive addition. The sty should 
*;ot be exposed to the cold, damp winds; at the same time, it 
should be shaded from the mid-day ghire of a hot summer's sun. 
Such a sty as we have described, a cottager may build for himself: 
it will cost little, excepting his own labor. His objects are the com- 
fort of the animal, and the saving of the manure; and the latter 
object, in particular, is too often neglected, as is also the cleanliness 
of the sty altogether. 

" The above remarks apply more especially to the cottager, but are 
not quite applicable, excepting as far as principle goes, to the farmer, 
who finds it profitable to keep many pigs, or the brewer, or distiller, 
or milk-merchant, upon whose establishments great numbers of these 
animals are kept. The farmer may find a range of simple styes 
similar to what we have just described to be convenient, with larger 
accommodations for breeding sows, and an exclusive and well-se- 
cured domicile for the boar. The young pigs, and porkers, with the 
sows, will have the advantage of a firm-yard or large stravr-yard, 
in which they may indulge themselves according to their natural 
instincts. They must of course be stied up for fattening ; but 
before this process commences they may be turned into the cut 
wheat fields in autumn, or into the oak copses (if there be such,) 
not however without being under surveillance. The air and the 
moderate exercise taken in searching for a scanty but excellent kind 
of food, will render their repast when driven home in the afternoon 
most acceptable. The former, however, and the brewer or milk- 
merchant (we mean the great milk-dealers in the neighborhood of 
London,) are diflTerently situated. In the latter cases, a well-ar 
ranged series of airy, cleanly styes is imperative, especially for pigs 
above the size of sucklings, for even in such establishments the lat- 
ter may be allowed some degree of liberty. System and order 
should prevail. There should be a proper place in which to mix 
and boil the food, with one or more large coppers and straining 
apparatus. The food should be mixed in square brick tanks, sunk 
in the ground and cemented, in order that no filtration of the more 
fluid parts may take place. If there is only one tank there should 
be a partition in it. From the boiling-house there should be an 
imniediate communication with the styes, under cover if possible — • 
but an out-house close to the styes, with a loft for roots, &c.. may be 
made available. Each sty should open into a small yard behind, 
inclosed with a low vail or paling, but with a strong door. There 



GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HOG. 205 

should be separate styes for breeding sows, for porkers, and fatten, 
ino- hogs. Not more than three or four of the latter should be in 
one sty. The food should be given in troughs, in a separate com- 
partment from that in which the hogs lie down, and no litter should 
be allowed there. Tiie floor should be of brick or stone; should 
be frequently washed clean, and the troughs should be cleaned out 
before every, meal. Any of the food left from the last meal should 
be taken out and given to the store pigs. A very convenient con- 
trivance for keeping the troughs clean is to have a flap or door made 
with hinges, so that it' can swing, and alternately be fastened by a 
bolt to the inside or outside edge of the trough. When the hogs 
have fed sufficiently, the door is swung in, and the trough easily 
cleaned out. It remains on the inside till feeding time, when the 
food is poured in without any impediment from the greedy hogs, 
who cannot get at it till the door is swung out. This simple con- 
trivance saves a great deal of trouble, and is easily adapted to 
any common sty. It is a great advantage to be able to inspect 
the styes without going into them ; and this is effected by placing 
them under a common roof, which may conveniently be a lean-to to 
the boiling-house or any other building, with a passage between 
them. 

" Where numerous pigs are kept, it will be advantageous to have 
a double row of styes, with a paved alley between them ; there 
should be good drainage, by which all refuse is carried off* to a 
manure-pit, and the greatest cleanliness should be maintained. Six 
breeding sows, giving each two litters per annum, will produce 
yearly upwards of a hundred pigs ; of these, fifty or sixty may be 
fattened at the latter part of autumn, through the winter, and during 
the months of February and March, for bacon ; the younger brood 
may be killed as porkers, or sold off* as stores. With respect to 
the steaming apparatus, it will be found available for other animals 
on the farm, as horses, &c., to which steamed potatoes and other 
roots may be profitably allowed. 

" The breeding sows should be kept each by itself in a large and 
commodious sty, and the store and fattening pigs should have their 
respective tenements. Some recommend that the floor of the sleep- 
ing-shed be made of planks, as bricks are cold and apt to induce 
cramp or diarrhoea ; certainly wood is preferable to bricks. Where 
bricks are used, they should be set in cement, in order that no 
filtration may take place through the interstices, and thereby keep 
the soil underneath in a state of wetness, whence noxious gases 
will necessarily arise and generate disease, to the great loss of the 
farmer. Another thing is desirable, namely, that the roof of the 
sty, whether composed of slates, tiles, or slabs of stone, should have 
a gutter in order to carry off* the rain ; this may be easily contrived, 
and at little expense, and will often keep the sty from being flooded." 
"^-Martin. 



206 THE Hoa. 



CHAPTER XIY. 

Pigs, Profit of, to the Bulcher— Suckinff-pigs — Pork-hutcherS — Pig-killir.s: at Rome — Pickling 
Pork — Bacon : Mode of Curing" in Hampshire — Buckinghamshire — Witshlre — Yorkshire- 
Westphalia — America — Brine a Poison for Pigs — Quantity of Bacon, Ham, and Salt Pork 
imported during the last Three Years — Importation of Swine — Pigs' Dung am Manure. 

There is perhaps no animal so entirely profitable to the butcher 
as the pig. Scarcely an atom of it but is useful. The offal is so 
small as not to be thought of in comparison with that arising frcm 
cattle and sheep. The feet, the head, and even portions of the intes- 
tines are saleable for food and eagerly purchased by epicures; the 
scraps and trimmings of the meat make delicious sausages, pork pies, 
and other such savory dishes ; brawn, too, is another of the delicacies 
we owe to the much despised pig; the fat, or lard, is invaluable to 
cooks, confectioners, perfumers, and apothecaries ; pigs' bladders 
meet a ready saie ; the skin is available for pocket-books and several 
purposes; and the bristles form by no means an inconsiderable item 
in the tables of imports and exports, and are used by shoemakers, 
as well as in the manufacture of brushes, &c. Lastly, the flesh in 
the form of fresh or pickled pork, ham, and bacon, constitutes the 
''•hief food of thousands of human beings in all parts of the globe. 

In France, from one-half to two-thirds of the meat consumed by 
the poorer and middling classes of the provinces is pork. In Ireland, 
the peasantry and many of the middle-men scarcely know the taste 
of any other kind of meat. In most of our Channel Islands pork 
constitutes the staple animal food of the laboring classes and small 
farmers; and in America, and especially among the new settlements 
and back-woods, it is often the only animal food for the first few 
years of the settler's life. 

SUCKING-PIGS. 

In our own country, " sucking-pigs" too are in great esteem, and 
will, at their season, fetch a very high price. Charles Lamb, in one 
of his inimitable " Essays of Elia," declares, " Of all the delicacies 
of the whole mundus edihilis, I will maintain this to be the most 
delicate. 

" I speak not of your grown porkers — things between pig and 
pork— these hobbydehoys ; but a young and tender suckling, under 
a moon old, guiltless as ye': of the sty; with no original speck of 
the amor immujiditice, the hereditary failing of the first parent, as 
yet manifest; his voice as yet not broken, but something between 
a childish treble and a grumble, the mild forerunner or prceludium 
of a grunt. 



SUCKIN^G-PIGS. 207 

"//6! must he roafited. I am not ignorant that our ancestors ate 
Oimi seethed or boiled; but what a^ sacrifice of the exterior tegu- 

ttient ! r \. ' 

' There is no flavor comparable, I will contend, to that of the crisp, 
tawny, well watched, not over-roasted, crackling, as it is well called ; 
the very teeth are invited to their share of the pleasure at this ban- 
quet, in overcoming the coy, brittle resistance, with the adhesive 
oleaginous — Oh, call it not &t !— but an indefinable sweetness grow- 
\ng up to it — the tender blossoming of fat — fiit cropped in the bud 
—taken in the shoot — in the first innocence— the cream and quint- 
essence of the child-pig's yet pure food ; the lean, no lean ; but a 
kind of animal manna, or rather, fat and lean (if it must be so) so 
blended and running into each other, that both together make but 
one ambrosian result, or common substance. 

"Behold him while he is doing! it seemeth rather a refreshing 
warmth than a scorching heat that he is so passive to. How equally 
he twirleth round the string. Now he is just done. To see the ex- 
treme sensibility of that tender age; he hath wept out his pretty 
eyes — radiant jellies — shooting stars. See him in the dish, his 
second cradle; how meek he lieth ! wouldst thou have this innocent 
grow up to the grossness and indocility which too often accompany 
maturer swinehood ? Ten to one he would have proved a glutton, 
a sloven, an obstinate, disagreeable animal, wallowing in all filthy 
conversation — from these sins he is happily snatched away. 

Ere sin could blight or gorrow fade, 
Death came with timely care. 

" His memory is odoriferous : no clown curseth, whilst his stomach 
half ejecteth the rank bacon ; no coalheaver bolteth him in reeking 
sausages: he hath a fair sepulchre in the grateful stomach of the 
judicfous epicure, and for such a tomb might be content to die. 

"Pig — let me speak his praise— is no less provocative of the 
appetitl than he is satisfictory to the criticalness of the censorious 
palate. The strong man may batten on him, and the weakhng 
refuseth not his mild juices. 

" Unlike to mankind's mixed characters, a bundle of virtues and 
vices, inexplicablv intertwisted and not to be unravelled without 
hazard, he is— good throughout. No part of him is better or 
worse than another. He helpeth, as far as his little means goeth, all 

around." 

Sucking-pigs should be killed at from a fortnight to three week3 
old. The Chinese breed furnishes the most delicate and delicious 
" porklings." They should be stuck ; all the blood suff.jred to drair 
out; scafded and scraped gently ; and the bowels taken out, and th« 
inside spo-nged dry and clean. 



208 THE HOG. 

The alterations liittorl)^ effected in the breeds of s win i-. have tended 
materially to improve pork, and to render it more sought for and 
valued. We can recall to mind when the thought of pork was asso- 
ciated in our minds with visions of coarse-grained meat and oily fat, 
and with forebodings of a fit of indigestion. Nothing conld tend 
more effectually to banish such fancies than a sight and taste of the 
small, fine-grained joints, delicate as poultry, and of excellent flavor, 
which have taken the place of those ungainly legs and BrobdignagiaD 
loins and hands of '• olden times." 

And with the improvement of the meat has grown an increased 
demand for it. Formerly, ay, us lately as within the last five and 
twenty years, the trade of "pork-butcher" was unknown in almost 
all our country towns, even in those of some considerable import- 
ance; it is no longer so; there are now few places of any size or 
note which have not on an average one pork-butcher to every two or 
three meat-butchers; and in all smaller places pork is generally to 
oe procured wherever other meat is sold. 

PORKERS. 

'Supposing the brood to be w^euned at the age of eight or nine 
weeks, tnose destined for porkers may be allowed the range of the 
paddock or straw yard for three or four weeks, being at the same 
time regularly fed on the refuse of the mill and dairy. Where, as 
in the case of market gardeners and other such, a degree of liberty 
cannot be allowed, we recommend that the sty-yard be as roomy and 
extensive as possible. During the last ten days or fortnight, the 
feeding may be pushed, and more barley-meal, pea- meal, and milk 
allowed. Too many pigs should not be kept together in the same 
sty, nor should they be of unequal ages, as the larger are apt to per- 
secute their younger co-mates, and drive them from the trough. 
Porkers are killed at different a2;es, varyino- from about three months 
to seven months old. We consider that the true dairy-fed pork is 
in perfection when the animal does not exceed the age of about three 
months, or ranges from three to four months. Large pork is apt to 
be coarse and over fat, and consequently not so digestible as younger 
meat, and is therefore not so much sought for in the London market. 
It bears a lower price than small pork ; and though the pig weighs 
heavier, still, taking the extra keep into consideration, it is perhaps 
not more profitable. On such points as this, however, the breeder 
will always consult his own interest, and study the demands of the 
market. 



GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HOG, 209 

STORE HOGS. 

'• Of store hogs little need be said — they are intended either for 
sale, or as future bacon hogs. They should be kept in fair condition, 
not too low, and their health should be attended to; they should be 
allowed to run in the fields or in the woods and copses, when the 
teechmast or acorns are falling, and be regularly and moderately 
f jd at certain intervals, say in the morning and evening ; knowing 
their feeding times, by habit, they will never willingly be absent, 
and wherever they may ramble during the day, their return at the 
appointed time in the evening may be safely calculated upon. After 
their evening meal they should be secured in their sty, and snugly 
bedded up. 

HOGS FATTENING FOR BACON 

" Bacon-hogs (we here except breeding sows, destined after two or 
three litters tor the butcher) are generally put up to fatten at the 
acre of twelve or eighteen months. Under the term bacon-hogs, we 
include the barrows and spayed females chosen by the breeder or 
feeder for fattening, after the age admissible as porkers. In the fat- 
tening of bacon-hogs much judgment is requisite. It will not answer 
to over-feed them at first ; under such a plan they will lose their 
appetite, become feverish, and require medicine. They should be fed 
a I regular intervals ; this is essential ; animals fed regularly^ thrive 
better than those fed at irregular intervals, nor should more food be 
given them at each meal than they will consume. They should be 
sufficiently satisfied, yet not satiated. It would be as well to vary 
their diet; midlings, peas, potato-meal, and barley-meal may be 
given alternately, or in ditferent admixtures with wash, whey, butter- 
milk, skim-milk, and the occasional addition of cut grasses, and other 
green vegetables ; a little salt should be scattered in their mess — it 
will contribute to their health, and quicken their appetite ; a stone 
trough of clean water should be. accessible, and the feeding-troughs 
should be regularly cleaned out after every meal. The sty should 
be free from all dirt, and the bed of straw comfortable ; indeed, it is 
an excellent practice to wash and brush the hides of the animals, so as 
to keep the skin clean, excite the circulation of the cutaneous vessels 
and open the pores. Pigs thus treated will fatten more kindly than 
dirty, scurfy animals put upon better fare. This essent^ial point is 
greatly neglected, from the too common idea that the pig is naturally 
a filthv brute, than which nothing can be more untrue ; it is the 
keeper who is filthy, and not the animal, if he constrain a pig to 
wallow in a disgusting sty. 

^' Too many pigs should not be fed in the same sty ; three ara 
sufficient, and" they should be, as far as possible, of the same age - 



210 THE HOG. 

and the meals should be given fi-equently, but only in moderation at 
each time, — over-gorging is sure to cause indigestion, and the only 
remedy for this is abstinence; a little sulphur occasionally mingled 
with their food is useful. When the store hogs are first put up (and 
we must suppose them in moderate condition), the food should only 
be a few degrees superior to that on which they have already fed ; 
it should be improved step by step, till the digestive powers are 
adapted for that of the most nutritious quality ; and with this the 
fattening must be completed. 

"A bacon-hog is generally fattened in autumn, and killed about 
Christmas, — sometimes after Christmas, sometimes a few weeks 
before. The average length of time required for bringing the animal 
into good condition, varies from about fourteen to twenty-one weeks, 
according to size and breed. Some fatten hogs until they are inca- 
pable of moving, from the enormous load of fat with which they are 
burthened, and in order to accomplish this, four, five, or even six 
months are required. An animal so fed will certainly not pay for 
its food, nor can it be deemed in health; the heart and lungs will be 
oppressed, the circulation impeded, and the breathing laborious; 
sufficient fatness is all that is desirable. A fat hog is a comely, 
comfortable-looking animal, the embodied type of epicurean felicity ; 
but a bloated, overladen hog is a disgusting object, uneasy and dis- 
tressed in its own feelings, incapable even of enjoying its food, buried 
in its excessive fat. 

"The quantity of barley-meal, pea-meal, or other farinaceous 
food (exclusive of wash, skim-milk, &c.) consumed by a hog during 
the time of its fattening for bacon, will vary greatly according to 
the size and breed of the animal. Taking the average, and supposing 
the pig's age to be fourteen or fifteen m(>nths, and the animal to be in 
fair condition, we should say that ten or twelve bushels of meal (that 
is, barley-meal, pea-meal, &c.) would be sufficient for every useful 
purpose ; well do we know that much less often suffices. But we 
are supposing the production of first-rate bacon. Porkers, of course, 
require a less outlay according to their age. A porker ought not to 
carry too much flit; neither the feeder nor the buyer profit by over- 
fed pork, thrusiti perhaps the pork-butcher may — he retails it per 
pound to his customers. Our observations, however, do not apply 
to the respectable dealers in pork in London and its environs, who 
exhibit the most delicious country-fed meat, and justly pride them- 
feelves upon an article of consumption which brings theixi the first- 
rate custom. 

" With respect to the estimated tables relative to the increase in 
weight of hogs, under certain modes of feeding, and under given 
quantities of food, we hold them to be utterly fallacious. The feed- 
er's means, the produce of his grounds, the- breed he adopts, and the 
proportion of a tention he bestows on the porcine part of his stock, 



PIG-KILLING. 211 

Mhich will he regulated by his profit therein, will make all the differ- 
eiice, and must be taken into the account. To the farmer (we speak 
not of others), the profit to be derived by him from feeding porkers 
or bacon-hogs will depend upon suitability/, or the apposite union of 
circumstances connected with the locality, convenience, and staple 
returns of his land. It is one thing to keep a few pigs for home 
consumption, and another to keep them as a source of income." — 
Martin. 

pig-killing. 

A pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for the^.asl 
12 or 16 hours; a little water must, however, be within his reach. 
Mr. Henderson advises that in order to prevent the animal from 
struggling and screaming in the agonies of death, it should in the 
first place be stunned by a blow on the head. Some advise that the 
knife should be thrust into the neck so as to sever the artery leading 
from the heart, while others prefer that the animal should be stuck 
through the brisket in the direction of the heart, care, however, being 
taken not to touch the first rib. The blood should then be suffered 
to drain from the carcass, and the more completely it does so, the 
better will be the meat, say our English pork-butchers, but those of 
some parts of the Continent disagree with them, probably because 
there the p'*g's flesh is eaten for the most part fresh, or spiced, or 
cooked in other savory modes, and but seldom pickled or dried, 
therefore the superabundance of blood in it communicates to it a 
juicy richness agreeable to their palates. 

Mr. Waterton gives a very graphic description of the slaughter 
house for swine at Rome, and the proceedings of the pig-killers: — 

"As you enter Rome at the Porta del Popolo, a little on your 
right is the great slaughter-house, with a fine stream of water run. 
ning through it. It is, probably, inferior to none in Italy for an 
extensive plan and for judicious arrangements. Here some 700 oi 
800 pigs are killed on every Friday during the winter season. No- 
thing can exceed the dexterity with which they are despatched. About 
30 of these large and fat black pigs are driven into a commodi';us 
pen, followed by three or four men, each with a sharp skewer in his 
hand, bent at one end, in order that it may be used with advantage. 
On entering the pen, these performers, who put you vastly in mind 
of assassins, make a rush at the hogs, each seizing one by the leg, 
amid a general yell of horror on the part of the victims. Whilst 
the hog and the man are struggling on the ground, the latter with the 
rapidity of thought pushes his skewer betwixt the fore-leg and the 
body quite into the heart, and then gives it a turn or two. The pig 
can rise no more, but screams for a minute or so and then expires. 
This process is continued until they are all despatched, the hvute^ 



212 THE HOG. 

sometimes rolling over the butchers, and sometimes the biitchorft 
over the brutes, with a yelling enough to stun one's ears. In the. 
mean time the screams become fainter and Winter, and then all is 
silence on the death of the last pig. A cart is in attendance ; the 
carcasses are lifted into it, and it proceeds through the street, leaving 
one or more dead hogs at the different pork-shops. No blood ap- 
pears outwardly, nor is the internal haemorrhage prejudicial to the 
meat, for Rome cannot be surpassed in the flavor of her bacon or in 
the soundness of her hams." — Essays on Natural History. 

PREP ^RING THE DEAD PIG. 

As soon as the hog is dead, if it is intended for pork let it be laid on 
a board or table, and scalded with water nearly but not quite on the 
boil, and well scraped to get off all the hair and bristles. Bacon-hogs 
may be singed by enveloping the body in straw and setting the straw 
on fire, and then scraping it all over; but when this is done care 
must be taken not to burn or parch the cuticle. The next thing to 
be done is to take out the entrails and well wash the interior of the 
body with luke-warm water so as to remove all blood and impuri- 
ties, and afterwards dry it with a clean cloth ; the carcass should then 
be hung up in a cool place for eighteen or twenty hours to become 
set and firm. 

On the following day the feet are first of all cut off, so that they 
shali not disfigure the hams or hands, and plenty of knuckle shall be 
left to hang them up by ; the knife is then inserted at the nape of 
the neck and the carcass divided up the middle of the back bone; 
the head is then separated from each side close behind the ears, and 
the hams and shoulders taken oft' and trimmed ; some take out the 
ehine and upper part of the ribs in the first place, but almost every 
locality has its peculiar way <.)f proceeding. 

PICKLING PORK. 

For pickling pork the sides should be rubbed over with sugar and 
salt, and then laid in a brine-tub, in which a thick layer of salt has 
already been strewn, and a slighter one of sugar ; the poi-k must be 
cut into such pieces as will admit of its lying quite flat in the tub; 
the rind must be placed downwards, and between each layer of pork 
a layer of salt and sugar. When the tub is quite full, a layer of salt 
sufficiently thick to exclude the air must be spread over the whole, 
and the tub covered closely up and left for a week or ten days ; if 
by this time the brine has not begun to rise, warm water should 
be sprinkled over the top layer. 

Pork pickled in this way will be ready for use in about three 
months, and with proper car " will be as good at the en(^ of two 



CURING BACON. 213 

years as it was when first begun. The sugar is considered to impart 
a finer and richer flavor than saltpetre, although the hitter is most 
commonly used. There is no reason why both sugar and saltpetre 
may not be advantageously combined with the salt in pickling pork, 
as well as in salting beef, "for in this latter process there can be no 
question that a pickle Ci)raposed of three parts salt, one part salt- 
petre, and one sugar, is the very best that can be used, making the 
meat tender, juicy, well flavored, and fine colored. 

CURING BACON. 

Bacon is the next form in which we eat pig's flesh. There has 
been some dispute as to the derivation of this word ; some authors 
have suggested that it may be a corruption of the Scotch baken^ 
(dried,) while others suggest that it is derived from beecken, as the 
finest flitches were considered to be those furni^hed by animals that 
were fattened on the fruit of the beech-tree, and this opinion is borne 
out by the fact that in the old Lancashire dialect the word bacon is 
both spelt and pronounced beecken. A bacon hog will in general befit 
fv)r killing at about a twelve-month old, when he will weigh some 200 
or 240 lbs. ; those persons who care most about the hams will find it 
answer their purpose best not to let the animals be too fat, or so fat 
as a bacon-hog, and after having taken off" the hams to cut up the 
carcass for fresh or pickling pork. 

There are various methods of curing bacon and hams, practised 
in the different counties of England, as well as in Scotland, America, 
and the Continent. We will proceed to describe a few of the best 
and most successful. 

In Hampshire and Berkshire the practice is to choose a dry day, 
when the wind is blowing from the north, and kill the hog early in 
the morning (it having fiisted the day before.) When dressed hang 
him up in some airy place for 24 hours, then proceed to cut him up. 
This being done, lay the flitches on the ground, and sprinkle them 
with salt lightly, so let them remain for six or eight hours; then 
turn them up edgeways, and let the brine run off*. In the mean time 
take two or three gallons of best salt, and two ounces of saltpetre, 
pounded very fine, and well mixed together; and the salting bench 
being made of the best seasoned oak, proceed to salt the flitches by 
rubbinor in the salt on the back side of the flitch. This being done, 
turn the inside upwards, and lay on the salt about a quarter ot an 
inch in thickness : in like manner treat every flitoh. On the third 
day afterwards change the flitches, viz.. take off* the uppermost and 
reverse them, at the same time lay on salt a quarter of an inch in 
thickness. There will be no need of rubbing as before-mentioned, 
ricither should the saltpetre be repeated, otherwise the lean of the 
bacon will be hard. The changing and salting should be done every 



214 THE HOG. 

third day for six successive times, when the bacon will be sufficiently 
salt. Then proceed to rub off all the stale briny salt, and lay on 
each flitch a covering of clean fresh bran or sawdust, and take it to 
the drying loft. It should be there hung by means of cro(jks fast- 
ened in the neck of the flitch, and remain for fourteen or sixteen 
days. The fuel most proper for drying bacon is cleft oak or ash, 
what is commonly called cord wood. 

In Buckinghamshire, as soon as the flitches are cut from the hog 
they lay them on a form or table in a slanting position, and, suppos- 
ing the whole hog to have weighed 240 or 280 lbs., take a quarter 
of a pound of saltpetre, pounded very fine, and sprinkle it all over 
the flitches, rubbing it well into the shoulder parts especially ; they 
then suffer them to remain twelve hours, after which they should be 
rubbed dry, and in the mean time seven pounds of salt mixed with 
one pound and a quarter of coarse brown sugar put into a frying- 
pan and heated on a clear fire, stirring it well that it may all be of 
the same temperature. This mixture, as hot as the hand can pos- 
jsibly bear it, may now be rubbed well into the flitches, which are 
then put one upon the other and laid in a salting-pan or other 
contrivance, in order that the brine may form and be kept from 
wasting. The bacon must be kept in this situation four weeks, 
turning it and basting it well with the brine twice or thrice a week. 
At the expiration of this time take it from the brine, hang it up 
to dry, and smoke it, if preferred, which in the absence of a regular 
smokehouse may be done as follows: — Hang up the bacon in a 
chimney or other orifice, then underneath put down a layer of dry 
straw, upon this a layer of mixed shavings, keeping out those from 
deal or fir, next a good layer of sawdust and some juniper-berries, 
or branches where procurable, and over all a mantle of wet straw 
or litter, which makes the fire give out much smoke without burn- 
ing away too rapidly. This smoking must be repeated three or 
four times, or till the bacon appears thoroughly dry, when it may 
be hung up in the kitchen, or any dry place convenient. 

In Kent the hog is swaled or singed, in preference to scalding and 
scraping the skin, as this latter process, it is considered, tends to 
soften the rind and injure the firmness of the flesh. The flitches are 
rubbed with dry salt and saltpetre in the proportion of one-third of 
the latter to two of the former, and laid in a trough, and there each 
one sprinkled over with this mixture. Here they continue for three 
weeks or a month, according to their size, during which time they 
are taken out once in two or three days and well rubbed with the 
brine and turned. 

They are dried before a slow fire, and this process occupies abou< 
the same time that the salting has done. When it is completed the 
flitches are either hung up in a dry place, or deposited on stone slab& 
urtil wanted for domestic use. 



CURING BACON. 215 

In Somersetshire and Wiltshire, the following is the common pro- 
cess :— 

When the hogs are prepared, the sides are first laid in large 
wooden troughs and sprinkled over with rock salt, and there left un- 
moved for four-and-twenty hours, in order to let all the blood and 
other superfluous juices be completely drained off from them. 

After this they are taken up and thoroughly wiped, and some fresh 
bay-salt, previously heated in an iron frying-pan, is rubbed into the 
flesh until it has aosorbed a sufticient quantity. This rubbing is con- 
tinued for four successive days, during which the flitches are usually 
turned every second day. Where the large hogs are killed it be- 
comes necessary to keep the flitches in brine for three weeks, and 
after that interval to turn them out and dry them in the common 
manner. 

In the county of Westmoreland, which is celebrated for the flavor 
of its hams, the following method prevails: — ^First they are tho- 
roughly rubbed, usually with bay-salt alone, after which some curers 
advise that they shall be closely covered up, while others leave thetn 
on a stone for the purpose of draining off the brine. At the expira- 
tion of five days this friction is repeated with equal diligence, but 
the bay-salt is then combined with somewhat more than an ounce 
of saltpetre to each ham. They are next suffered to lie about a 
week either in hogsheads among the brine, or on stone benches, 
after which they are hung up in the chimney to dry. In this last 
part of the process there is a difference of practice. By some they 
are suspended so that they shall be dried solely by the heat arising 
from thv fire below, without being exposed at all to the smoke, 
while by others they are hung up in the midst of the smoke, whether 
this arises from coals or peat. 

In Yorkshire, after the pig has been killed, it is allowed to hang 
twenty-four hours previous to being cut up ; one pound of saltpetre 
is then rubbed into a twenty-stone pig, (of fourteen pounds to the 
stone,) and one and a half or two stones of common salt, taking 
care that it is well rubbed in ; it is then put into a tub kept for the 
purpose. After having lain a fortnight it is turned over, and a little 
more salt applied — say half a stone ; it then remains a fortnight 
longer in the pickle-tub ; whence it is taken and hung up in the 
kitchen, where it remains two months to dry, but should the winter 
be far advanced, and dry weather set in, a shorter period might 
suffice. After being taken from the top of the kitchen, the inside is 
washed over with quicklime and water, to preserve it from the fly ; 
it is then removed into a room not used by the family, away from 
heat, and where it will be kept perfectly dry, and is ready for use 
at pleasure. The smoking system is rarely adopted. 

Mr. Henderson, in \i\s ''' Treatise 071 S wine^^' gives the following 
account of the mode of curing bacon and hams in Scotland : — 



216 THE HOG. 

" In killing a number of swine, what sides you may have dressea 
the first day, lay upon some flags or boards, piling them across eacii 
other, and giving each flitch a powdering of saltpetre, and then cover- 
ing it with salt. Proceed in the same manner with the hams them- 
selves, and do not omit giving them a little saltpetre, as it opens the 
pores of the flesh to receive the salt, and besides, gives the ham a 
pleasant flavor, and makes it more juicy. Let them lie in this state 
about a week, then turn those on the top undermost, giving them afresh 
salting. After lying two or three weeks longer, they may be hung 
up to dry in some chimney or smoke-house. Or, if the curer chooses, 
he may turn them over again, without giving them any more 
salt ; in which state they may lie for a month or two, without catch- 
ing any harm, until he has convenience for drying them. I practised 
for many years the custom of carting my flitches and hams through 
the country to farm-houses, and used to hang them in their chimneys, 
and other parts of the house, to dry, some seasons to the amount of 
five hundred carcasses. This plan I soon found was attended by a 
number of inconveniences, yet it is still common in Dumfriesshire. 

"About twenty years ago, I contrived a small smoke-house of a 
very simple construction. It is about twelve feet square, and the 
walls about seven feet high. One of these huts requires six joists 
across, one close to each wall, the other four laid asunder at proper 
distances. To receive five rows of flitches, they must be laid on 
the top of the wall. A piece of wood strong enough to bear the 
weight of one flitch of bacon, must be fixed across the belly end of 
the flitch by two strings, as the neck end must hang downwards. 
The piece of wood must be longer than the flitch is wide, so that 
each end may rest upon a beam. They may be put so near to each 
otner as not to touch. The width of it will hold twenty-four flitches 
in a row, and there will be five rows, which will contain one hundred 
and twenty flitches. As many hams may be hung at the same time 
above the flitches, contrived in the best manner one can. The lower 
end of the flitches will be within two and a half or three feet of the 
floor, which must be covered five or six inches thick with sawdust, 
which must be kindled at two different sides. It will burn, but not 
cause any flame to injure the bacon. The door- must be kept close, 
and the hut must have a small hole in the roof, so that part of the 
smoke may ascend. That lot of bacon and hams will be ready to 
pack up in a hogshead, to send off*, in eight or ten days, or a little 
longer if required, with very little loss of weight. After the bacon 
is salted it may lie in the salt-house, as described, until an order is 
received. 

*' I found the smoke-house to be a great saving, not only in the 
expense and trouble of employing men to cart and hang it through 
the country, but it did not lose nearly so much weight by this pro- 
."ess. It may be remarked, that whatever is shipped for the LondoD 



CURING BACON. 217 

market, or any other, both bacon and hams, must be knocked hard 
and packed into a sugar hogshead, or something similar, to hold 
about ten hundred weight. Bacon can only be cured from the mid- 
dle of September until the middle of April." 

The annexed system is the one usually pursued in Westphalia : — 

'' Six pounds of rock salt, two pounds of powdered loaf sugar, 
three ounces of saltpetre, and three gallons of spring or pure water, 
are boiled together. This should be skimmed when boiling, and 
w^hen quite cold poured over the meat, every part of which must 
be covered with this brine. Small pork will be sufficiently cured in 
four or five days ; hams, intended for drying, will be cured in four 
or five weeks, unless they are very large. This pickle may be 
used again and again, if it is fresh boiled up each time with a small 
addition to the ingredients. Before, however, putting the meat into 
the brine, it must be washed in water, the blood pressed out, and the 
whole wiped clean. 

" Pickling-tubs should be larger at the bottom than at the top, 
by which means, when well packed, the pork will retain its place 
until the last layer is exhausted. When the pork is cool it may be 
cut up, the hams and shoulders reserved for bacon, and the re- 
mainder salted. The bottom of the tub or barrel should be covered 
with rock salt, and on it a layer of meat placed, and so on until the 
tub is filled. The salt should be used liberally, and the barrel filled 
with strong brine boiled and skimmed, and then cooled. 

"The goodness and preservation of hams and shoulders depends 
on their smoking as well as their salting. Owing to some miscon- 
struction of the smoke-house, and to the surface of the meat not 
Deing properly freed from saline matter, or other causes, it not un- 
frequently happens that during the process of smoking, the meat is 
constantly moist, and imbibes a pyroligneous acid taste and smell, 
destructive of its good qualities. 

"The requisites of a smoke-house are, that it should be perfectly 
dry ; not warmed by the fire that makes the smoke ; so far from 
the fire, that any vapor thrown off in the smoke may be condensed 
before reaching the meat ; so close as to exclude all flies, mice, &;c., 
and yet capable of ventilation admitting the escape of smoke. 

"The Westphalian hams, the most celebrated in Europe, are 
principally cured at and exported from Hamburg. The smoking 
of these is performed in extensive chambers, in the upper stories of 
high buildings. Some are four or five stories high, and the smoke 
is conveyed to these rooms from fires in the cellar through tubes, on 
which the vapor is condensed, and the heat absorbed, so that the 
smoke is both dry and cool when it comes in contact with the meat. 
They are thus kept perfectly dry, and acquire a color and flavor 
unknown to those smoked in the common metnod. 

"Hams after being smoked may be kept anv length of time by 
10 



218 THE HOG. 

being packed in dry ashes or powdered charccal, cr by being kept 
in the smoke-house if that is secure against theft, or a smoke is 
made under them once a-week. When meat is fully smoked or 
dried, it may be kept hung up in any dry room by slipping over it 
a cotton bag, the neck of which is closely tied around the string ihat 
supports the meat, and thus excludes the bacon-bug, fly, &c. The 
small part of a ham or shoulder should always be hung downward 
in the process of smoking, or when suspended for preservation." — ■ 
Albany Cultivator. 

The following method of curing bacon — which has been practised 
m Virginia and Kentucky by one person with perfect success for five- 
and-thirtv years, durino; which time he states that he has cured on 
the average from six to eight thousand pounds every year, or, ni trie 
whole, the enormous quantity of from a hundred to a hundred and 
twenty-five tons — will conclude what we have to say on this division 
of our subject. 

" The hogs should be killed when the weather is sufficiently cold 
to ensure that when they are hung up, after having been cleaned, 
they shall not only become quite cold to the touch, but feel hard and 
stiff. They should be killed on one day, and cut up and salted on 
the next. When the weather is very cold they should be hung in a 
cellar or somewhere where they are not likely to become frozen, but 
if there be no danger of this, let them hang in the open air. 

"The process of cutting up is too well known to need description ; 
nothing further need be said than that the backbone or chine should 
be taken out, as also the spare-ribs from the shoulders, and the 
mouse-pieces and short-ribs or grlskins from the middlings. No 
acute angles should be left to shoulders or hams. In salting up i« 
Virginia, all the meat except the heads, jowls, chines, and smallei 
pieces, is put into powder ing-tuhs (water-tight half hogsheads). In 
Kentucky, large troughs, ten feet long and three or four feet wide at 
the top, made of the Liriodendron tulipifera^ or poplar-tree, are 
used. These are much the most convenient for packing the me-at 
in, and are easily caulked if they should crack so as to leak. The 
salting-tray, or box in which the meat is to be salted, piece by piece, 
and from which each piece, as it is salted, is to be transferred to the 
powdering-tub or trough, must be placed just so near the trough that 
the man standing between can transfer tlie p'ece from one to the 
other easily, and without wasting the salt as tney are lifted from the 
saltino;-box into the tronorh. The Salter stands on the otT-side of the 
salt!ng-b(;x. Salt the hams first, the shoulders next, and the mid- 
dlings last, which may be piled up two feet above the top of tin 
trough or tub. The joints will thus in a short time be immersed 
in brine. 

*' Measure into your salting-tray four measures of salt (a peck 
measure will be found most convenient,) and one measure of clean 



CURING BACON. 219 

dry sifted ashes ; mix and incorporate them well. The saltcr takes 
a ham into the tray, rubs the skin with this composition and the raw 
hock end, turns it over, and packs the composition of salt and aslies 
on the fleshy side till it is at least three-quarters of an inch deep 
all over it, and on the interior lower part of the ham, which is cov- 
*;red with the skin, as much as will lay on it. The man who stands 
ready to transfer the pieces as they are salted takes up the piece, 
and deposits it carefully, without" displacing the composition, with 
the skin side down, in the bottom of the trough. Each succeedino- 
ham is thus deposited side by side, so as to leave the least posi;ible 
space unoccupied. 

" When the bottom is all covered, see that every visible part of 
this layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes. 
Then begin another layer, every piece being covered on the upper or 
fleshy side three-quarters of an inch thick with the composition. 
VYhen your trough is filled even full in this way with the joints, salt 
the middlings with salt only, without the ashes, and pile them up on 
the joints so that the liquefied salt may pass from them into the 
trough. Heads, jowls, backbones, &.-.., receive salt only, and should 
not be put in the trough with the large pieces. 

" Much slighter salting will preserve them if they are salted upon 
loose boards,^ so that the bloody brine from them can pass off. The 
joints and middlings are to remain in and above the trough without 
being re-handled, re-salted, or disturbed in any way, till They are to 
be hung up to be smoked. 

" If the hogs weighed not more than 150 lbs., the joints need not 
remain longer than five weeks in the pickle ; if they weighed 200 or 
upwards, six or seven weeks is not too long. It is bette*r that they 
should stay in too long rather than too short a time. 

^ " In three weeks, jowls, &c., may be hung up. Taking out of 
pickle, and preparation for hanging up to smoke, is thus performed : 
—-Scrape ofi* the undissolved salt (and if you had put on as much as 
directed, there will be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not 
immersed in the brine ; this salt and the brine is all saved ; the brine 
boiled down, and the dry composition given to stock, especially to 
hogs.) Wash every piece in lukewarm water, and with a rough 
towel clean off the salt and a.shes. Then put the strings in to hani^ 
up. Set the pieces up edgewise, that they may draui and dry. 
Every piece is then to be dipped into the meat-paint, and hung up to 
smoke. The meat-paint is made of warm, not hot, water and very 
fine ashes stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick 
paint. When they are dipped in this, they receive a coating which 
projects tiiem from the fly, prevents dripping, and tends to lessen 
all external injurious influences. Hang up the pieces while yet moist 
with the paint, and smoke them well." 



220 



THE HOG. 



POISONOUS PROPERTIES OF BRINE. 

It Is a fact worthy of notice that the brine in which pork or bacon 
has been pickled is poisonous to pigs. Several cases are on record in 
which these animals have died in consequence of a small quantity oi 
brine having been ir-ingled with the wash, under the mistaken 
impression that it would answer the same purpose and be equally 
as beneficial as the admixture of a small quantity of salt. 



IMPORTATIONS OF BACON. HAM, AND SALTED PORK. 

From a reference to the accounts furnished by the Board of Trade, 
it appears that there have been imported during the last three years, 



Bacon cwts. 

Hams " 

Pork, Salted : 

Of British Possessions . . " 

Foreign . . . . " 

Fresh " 

Total of Pork . . " 


1844. 


1845. 


1846. 


36 


54 


2,768 


6,732 


5,462 


11,252 


2,153 

28,627 
63 


1,517 

38,128 

133 


i 72,519 
133 

72,652 


30,843 


39,878 



And of these articles there were entered for home consumption, — • 



Bacon cwts. 

Hams " 

Pork, Salted : — 

Of British Possessions . . " 

Foreign . . . . " 

Fresh " 

Total of Pork . . " 


1844. 


1845. 


J 846. 


36 


54 


2.768 


3,568 


2,602 


8,385 


248 

1,073 

63 


172 

1 ,239 
13S 


i 72,510 
133 


1,384 


1,594 1 72,652 



These tables demonstrate the enormous increase in the importa- 
tion of these staple articles of food which has taken place since the 
abolition of the Tariff of 1842 and the substitution of the uew cue. 
The alteration of duties is as follows : 



IMPORTATION OF BACON AND PORK. 221 

In 18i2. New Tariff. 

s. d. s. d. 

On Bajon from Foreign Countries 14 per cwt. 7 per cwt. 

British Possessions 3 6" 20" 

Ham from Foreign Countries 14 " 7 " 

British Possessions 3 6" 20" 

Salted Pork from Foreign Countries. 8 0" 00" 

British Possessions. 2 0" 00" 

Previous to 1842 the duty on bacon and ham amounted to 285. 
and 75. per cwt., and that on pork to 16^. and 45. ; swine were then 
prohibited ; but when, by the Act 5 & 6 Vict. cap. 47, they became 
admissible, there were imported, — 

In 1842. In 1843. In 1844. In 1845. In 1846. 



415 361 269 1,598 3,443 

Here again we find the same w^onderful increase. In 1845 s^ven 
times the number are imported that were brought over in 1844; and 
in 184G the import of 1845 is doubled. Y-tt there is no diminution 
created in the provision trade by this extraordinary increase in that 
of live animals, but, on the contrary, it too increases in 1845, and is 
again doubled in 1846. And the increase of demand is proportion- 
ate with that of the supplies. 

The accounts of one branch of our imports will this present year, 
however, in all probability, show a material defalcation in the amount; 
we allude to those arising from Ireland, whence a large number of 
the pigs which come to our markets are supplied, and where the pre- 
sent state of dearth has caused numbers of these animals to be de- 
stroyed. This fact ought to stimulate our native breeders to increased 
exertions. In from 1820 to 1825 there was on the average from 
204,380 to 338,218 cwts. of bacon and hams imported yearly into 
England from the sister country. Since the last named period there 
has been no decrease ; but, the trade between Ireland and Great 
Britain having been placed on the footing of a coasting-trade, and 
these articles having been imported without specific duties, it is no* 
so easy to ascertain the precise amounts brought over ; they may 
be, however, estimated at about 500,000 cwt. per annum. 

The keeping of swine is fast becoming something more than a 
mere means of disposing of offal and matters which would otherwise 
be wasted ; and we trust that the value and lucrativeness of thig 
branch of rural economy will soon be fully acknowledged, and that 
swine will be duly estimated among farmers and breeders. The 
next step must of necessity speedily follow : men of science will no 
longer deem them beneath their notice ; their habits, instincts, and 
ailments will be properly studied ; individuals as well as the world 
•will be benefited ; and a new and important field of knowledge 
thrown open. 



222 THE HOG. 

Yet another source of profit accruing from swine, and we close 
this chapter. 

pig's dung as manure. 

The manure proceeding from the pigsty has been often much 
undervalued, and for this reason, — that the litter has been considered 
as forming the principal portion of it, whereas it constitutes the least 
valuable part ; and, indeed, where all due attention is paid to the 
cleanliness of the animals and of their dwellings, it can scarcely be 
regarded as manure at all, at least by itself. 

It is the urine and the dung which are valuable ; and these are 
now generally allowed to be peculiarly so, and to constitute no in- 
considerable items in the profits arising from the keeping of swine. 
These matters are, from the very nature of the food of the animals, 
exceedingly rich and oleaginous, and materially benefit cold soils 
and grass-lands. But, as with most other things relative to swine, 
this has also been too much neglected ; the animals have been suf- 
fered to wander about at will, voiding their dung and urine in waste ; 
or, when confined, the sty perhaps furnished no means of collecting 
and saving it. We will venture to prophesy that the partial altera- 
tion of system which is now gradually spreading will speedily lead 
to amendment in this point also ; and the dung from the piggery 
will be husbanded with a care little inferior to that bestowed on the 
fold, stable, or cow-house dung. 

Martin says: " There is another point relative to the hog, which we 
must not omit to notice. We allude to the value of the solid and 
liquid manure. This has been, and still is, too much neglected. 
Nevertheless, this manure js really of importance, being peculiarly 
adapted for cold soils and grass lands. It should always be collected 
as carefully as that of the stable or cow-house, and husbanded in 
the same way. Those who keep extensive piggeries will soon find 
the advantage of this plan, which, besides the profit arising from 
the manure itself, will necessitate the keeping of the piggery in a 
state of cleanliness. A dirty sty or yard is a disgrace to the owner; 
it is the source of disease, and it involves the waste of manure of 
first-rate quality. The cottager who keeps a pig or two will find 
the utility of this manure in his garden, and, by due attention, he 
will prevent the litter or bedding of straw from becoming a masa 
of filth ; thus in two ways eflecting a saving." 



MEDICINES FOK CUKE OF SWINE. 223 



CHAPTER XV. 

The Medicines used in combating the Maladies of Swine. 

The medicines generally used in the treatment of swine are nei. 
kher numerous nor complicated. There are, doubtless, many others, 
besides those enumerated in the following list, which might be 
employed with advantage, and which will, as the diseases of these 
domesticated animals become more studied, be discovered and made 
use of. 

The caution requisite in the administration of all medicines has 
been already alluded to in Chapter X.; force should as seldom as 
possible be had recourse to. 

It must be borne in mind that the doses here given are taken on 
the average, and must always be proportioned to the size, and con- 
stitution, and state of health of the animal. In all cases of actual 
disease, the best and most economical plan will be to have recourse 
to some good veterinary surgeon within reach. The life of many a 
valuable animal will thus be saved, for the mere amateur in surgery 
is always liable to blunder in the choice of remedies, as well as in 
the application of them, and will often create evils far greater than 
those he is endeavoring to cure. 

Antimony. — Seldom given by itself. In conjunction with sulphur, 
forms an efficient cooling and cleansing medicine ; and with sulphur 
and hog's lard, or palm or train-oil, constitutes the common mange- 
ointment. 

Arsenic. — Useful in mange, and other cases of diseases of the 
skin. From one ounce to an ounce and a half, dissolved in a gallon 
of water, will form a solution of sufficient strength. 

Calomel. — A dangerous drug, and one better left alone. In 
cases of emergency, however, it may be given in conjunction with 
an equal portion of tartarized antimony. From two to three grains 
of each will constitute an active emetic. 

Creosote. — Useful in cases of virulent cutaneous eruptions. 

Croton Oil. — A powerful purgative, and one that should only be 
had recourse to in cases of obstinate constipation. From one tc 
three drops may be given 



221 . THE HOG. 

DiGiTAiJS. — A valuable sedative medicine in cases of fever. 

Epr OM Salts. — A Very useful and efiicient purgative, suitable to 
most cases of common occurrence. From half an ounce to an 
ounce and a half may be ordinarily given. 

Gentian. — An excellent stomachic ; every aperient draught should 
contain a portion of this or the next-mentioned matter 

Ginger. — Also a good stomachic, and a tonic as well. From 
three scruples to a drachm and a half may be given of this and the 
preceding drug. 

Linseed Oil. — Valuable as an occasional purgative, especially 
where there is much intestinal inflammation. 

Mercurial Ointment. — Used for mange and scabs, in conjunc 
tion with the sulphur ointment. The proportions are one part of 
the former to eight parts of the latter. 

Nitre. — An excellent cooling medicine in all cases where there 
is tendency to fever. From one to two drachms may be given dis- 
solved in the water the animal drinks. 

Palm Oil. — The best emollient to form the basis of all ointments 
for cutaneous eruptions. 

Salt. — A valuable adjunct in purifying the blood, and maintain- 
ing the animals in good condition. A small quantity should be regu^ 
larly mingled with the food. 

Sulphur. — A good cooling medicine, and the best gentle aperient 
for ordinary use we have. It also constitutes the chief ingredient 
in mange-ointment. 

Tartar Emetic. — Useful as ah emetic. 

Vinegar. — Valuable in all cases requiring cooling fomentations. 

Tobacco. — A decoction of this plant efficacious and soothing in 
cases of mange and cutaneous eruptions, especially when mingled 
with equal parts of digitalis. 

Turpentine. — A destructive agent in cases of worms : it may 
be given to swia "5 without danger. 



INDEX. 



Abortion, treatment of, 161. 
Abstinence from pork, necessary in hot 

climates, 23. 
Acorns, pigs thrive on, 182. 
Age, great, of wild boars, 48. 
Agricultural societies, influence of, on 

breeding, 176. 
America, importation of breeds of 

swine into, 61 ; six species of hogs 

in, 58 ; wild boars in, 57. 
Analogy between the Chinese and their 

pigs, 64. 
Anatomy of swine, &c. 101, 
Ancients, boar-hunts of, 48. 
Anecdotes of pigs, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 

39. 
Anglo-Saxons, boar-hunts of, 50. 
Animal substances, feeding swine on, 

188. 
Apoplexy in pigs, 108. 
Apparatus for preparing pigs' food, 

200. 
Apples, swine fed on, 189. 
Ardennes, wild boar of, 52. 
Armor, hogs in, or Tatous, 15. 
Ashes given to pigs, 197 
Attachments of swine, 39. 
Autumn, best time for fattening pigs, 

190. 



B. 



Babiroussa, tb\ 14 ; at Zoological Gar- 
dens, 14. 

Bacon, curing, 213 ; derivation of the 
word, 213 ; importation of, 220. 

Bakewell, Mr., his pigs, 80. 

Bavarian pigs, 68. 

10* 



Beans, feeding swine on, 181, 187. 
Beasts of draught, pigs used as, 36, 

37. 
Bedford, Duke of, cut of his Berkshire 

sow, 86. 
Bedfordshire pigs, 82. 
Beech mast, swine fed on, 182. 
Bement, Mr., of Albany, on breeding 

pigs, 61. 
Berkshire pigs, 85. 

sow, cut of a, 86. 



Bladder, the, 134 ; inversion of,. 135. 
Bleeding swine, 134. 
Blood, hogs', used as holy water, 65. 
Boar hunts, laws respecting, 48, 49, 50. 

of the ancients, 49. 

of the Anglo-Saxons, 50. 



Boars, choice of, for breeding, 150. 

Boar's Head, Christmas dish, 51 ; pre- 
sented to the hangman, 51; at 
Queen Margaret's wedding dinner, 

Boars, tamed, 39 ; technical terms for, 
50 ; wild, see " Wild Boars." 

Bothnian pigs, 68. 

Brain of the hog, 107 ; inflammation 
of, 108. 

Bran, feeding pigs on, 189. 

Breeding, rules respecting, 149, 150. 
swine, how far profitable, 170. 



Breeds improved by judicious crosses, 
153 ; which are the best, 153. 

Breweries, pigs fed on refuse of, 179. 

Brine, poisonous properties of, 220. 

Bristles, ropes made trom,74; use mad« 
of, 34. 

Bronchial tubes, 122. 

Brushing pigs, 2C'2. 

Butcher, profit of pigs to the, 20G» 

(226) 



226 



INDEX. 



C. 



Caesarian operation performed on a 
sow. 153. 

Cape, the, the phaco-choeres in, 15. 

Capibara, the, 15. 

Carrots, feeding swii.e on, 180, 181. 

Castrated animals, disposed to obesity, 
178. ^ 

Castration of pigs, modes of, 145. 

Catching pigs, 147. 

Cattle shows, benefits and abuses of, 
177. 

Census of the increase of pigs by breed- 
ing, 170. 

Chanting to pigs, 203. 

Character, developing a pig's, 108. 

Charles L, reintroduction of wild boars 
by, 51, 87. 

Cheshire pigs, 83. 

Chestnuts, swine fed on, 182. • 

Chest of the pig, 120. 

Chinese swine, 88, 99 ; liable to become 
over fat, 178. 

Chinese, the, and their pigs, analogy 
between, 64. 

Choice of boar and sow for breeding, 
150. 

Christmas dish, the boar's bead a, 51. 

Cinders given to pigs, 189. 

Cleanliness of swine, 41, 189. 

Clover, feeding pigs on, 187. 

Cochon d'Inde. JSee " Guinea Pig." 

Coecum, the, 128. 

Coleshill pigs, 179. 

Colic, 129. 

Colon, the, 128. 

Combing pigs, 202. 

Copts, the, rear no pigs, 27. 

Cornish pig-s, 85. 

Crete, hogs sacred in, 23. 

Crops, number of swine to be propor- 
tioned to the farmer's, 171. 

Crosses, judicious, improve the breed, 
153. 

Curing bacon, 213. 

Cuvier, Baron, bis definition of * Hog," 
11 ; on the babiroussii, 14 ; on 
the capibara, 15 ; on the peccary, 



D. 



Dairy refuse for pigs, 179, 192. 
Dead pig, preparing the, 212. 



Definition, zoological, of the pig, 11. 

Democrates' prescription for measlea 
143. 

Derbyshire pigs, 79. 

Derivation of terra " Hog," 15. 

Desquamation of the skin, 143. 

Diarrhoea, 129. 

Dickens, Charles, on American pigs, 
59, 60. 

Dieskau, M. de, taming boars, 40. 

Diseased valves of the heart, 121. 

Diseases of swine, described, 102; little 
notice paid hitherto to, 102 ; medi- 
cines used for, 140, 223. 

Diseases of the skin, 136. 

Distilleries, pigs fed on refuse of, 179 
197. 

Docility of swine. 35, 37, 40. 

Drenching pigs, 148. 

Duodenum, the, 128. 



E. 



Early domestication of swine in Eng 

land, 31. 
Early history of swine, 30. 
Emperor of Austria's wild boar park, 

53. 
Empirics, animals not to be intrusted 

to, 101. 
England, breeds of swine in, 77 ; re- 
cords respecting keeping swine in, 

30. 
English swine introduced into France, 

72. 
Enteritis, 129. 

Epidemics among swine, 123. 
Epilepsy, 110. 

Epitaph on a prize pig, 178. 
Erysipelas, gangrenous, 137. 
Extinction of wild boars in Great BrL 

tain, 50. 



F. 



Farrowing, best time for, 156 ; rules 

respecting, 153. 
Fattening pigs. 33, 177, 184, 186, 188; 

excess of, 179. 
Feeding swine, 33 176. 177, 188. 
Filthy habits of swine denied, 41. 
Fleam, the u-e of, dangerous, 145. , 
Food of swine. 33, 42 ; best kind ftff 

fattening, 189. 
Food of wild boars, 47. 



IKDEX. 



227 



Forester, Lord, his pigs, 88. 
Forests of England, swine in, 31. 
Four-in-hand, swine driven, 36. 
France, breeds of swine in, 69 ; English 

swine introduced into, 725 wild boars 

in, 52. 
Fruits, feeding swine on, 43. 



G. 



Gangrenous erysipelas, 137. 
Garget of the maw, 120. 
Gauls, the, early breeders of swine, 22. 
Germany, management of herds of 

swine in, 32 ; mode of hunting hogs, 

52 ; wild boars introduced from, into 

England, 51, 87. 
Gestation, period of 154. 
Gilford, Master John, on hunting, 50. 
Gloucestershire pigs, 84. 
Grain, best for fattening pigs, 184, 194; 

how to be given to swine, 187. 
Grains, pigs fed on, 179. 
Great Britain, extinction of wild boars 

in, 51 ; reintroduction of boars, 51, 

87. 
Greediness of swine, 42, 44. 
Green meat, feeding swine on, 187. 
Guiana, the peccary abounds in, 13. 
Guinea pig, the, 14 ; the phaco-choe- 

res in, 15. 
Gullet, the, 127. 



H. 



Hampshire pigs, 87. 

flams, curing, 215, 217; importation 
of, 220; Westphalian, 52, 217. 

Hangman, boar's head presented to 
the, 52. 

Heart of the pig, 122; diseased valves 
of, 122. 

Hedgehog, the, 15. 

Heliogabalus, boars trained by, 37. 

Henderson, description of his sties, 
199 ; his method of curing bacon, 
215. 

Herds of swine, how managed in Ger- 
many, 32, 33. 

Herefordshire pigs, 84. 

Hernia in swine, 135. 

History of Toby, a pet pig, 40. 

Hogape, 13. 

Hog deer. *S'ee "Babiroussi.'' 

derivation of term, 21. 



Hog in armor, 15. 

iron, 15. 

puddings made by ancient Gauls, 

22. 

sea, 15. 

with two horns, 14 : four horniL 

15, 
Hog's blood used as holy water, 65. 
dung as manure, 222. 



Hogs, anatomy of, 100,&c.;attachment8 
of, 40; best food for fattening, 189 ; 
breeding, 149; catching and holding, 
for operations,147;cause of their roll- 
ing in the mud, 42 ; characteristics of, 
35, <fec. ; chief source of profit in Ire- 
land, 33; cleanliness of, 42, 189: col- 
lected by the winding of a horn, 32; 
despised by Egyptians, 28; diseases 
of, 108, 1^9 ; drenching, 148 ; driven 
four-in hand, 36 ; early history ot\ 
30 ; exquisite sense of smell of, 35, 
47, 105 ; fattening, 173 — 197 ; func- 
tions fulfilled in forest by, 33; greatly 
esteemed by Romans, 22; greediness 
of, 42 — 44; how far the breeding of, 
is profitable, 169; how kept in Mexi- 
co, 202; how pulse lo be taken, 121; 
hunt for truffles, 106 ; importation 
of 99; in English forests, 31; intrac- 
tability of, refuted, 32, 35—38, 108; 
introduction of English, into France, 
72; killing, 211; laws on price and 
quality of, 31; learned, 38; lucra- 
tiveness of keeping, 170. 206 ; mad, 
114 ; masting, 31 ; medicines used 
for, 223 ; methods of shooting, in 
Germany, 52 ; mode of keeping, 
in Germany, 32 ; mode of keeping, 
in Mexico, 202 ; number of, to be 
proportioned lo the farmer's crops, 
172 ; old English, 77 ; operations 
on, 144, 149; pasturing, 187 ; pro- 
fit of, to the butcher, 206; racing, 
38 ; ringing, 14S ; roasted, offered to 
deities, 63; skeleton of, 103; skin 
of, 136 ; skull of, 104 ; soiling, 187 ; 
sties for, 197 : sucking, 166 ; table 
of increase of, by breeding, 170 ; 
teeth of, 106 ; training of, 35, &g.; 
used as btasts of draught, 74 ; used 
for ploughing, 37 ; usefulness of, 33 , 
very nice in their food, 43 ; warmth 
required by, 198; v/eaning, 168; wea- 
ther indicated by, 42. 

Hog, the, in Africa, 66 ; Aldcrney, 73 ,' 



228 



INDEX. 



America, 58—62 ; Arabia, 65 ; Asia, 
64 ; Ceylon, 65 ; Channel Islands, 
72 ; China, 64 ; Columbia, 63 ; Eng- 
land, 77—89 ; Falkland Islands, 63; 
Flanders, 72 ; France, 69 : Germany, 
67 ; Guernsey, 72 ; Hebrides, 73 : 
Hindostan, 65; Hungary, 68; Japan, 
64; Jersey, 58; Indiana, 61; Ireland, 
89; Isle of Man, 73; Italy, 67; Malta, 
66; Netherlands, 72; New Holland, 
63 ; Orkneys, 74 ; Poland, 69 ; Rus- 
sia, 69; Scotland, 75; Serk, 73; Shet- 
land Islands, 73; South Sea Islands, 
63 ; Sweden, 07 ; Turkey, 65. 

B.om<i Farm, piggery at the, 200. 

Homer, his description of a boar hunt, 
48. 

Homer's swine- herd, 30. 

Horn, swine collected by the sound of 
a, 32. 

Howel Dha, laws of, 31, 50. 

Hunting wild boars, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56. 

Hunt, swine trained to, 35. 

I, J. 

Java, the babiroussa found in, 14, 

Jejunum, the, 128. 

Jews, forbidden to eat pork, 23. 

Ileum, the, 128. 

Importation of bacon, ham, and salted 

pork, 220. 
Importation of swine, 99, 220. 
India, wild boar huut in, 54. 
Indian corn, feeding swine on, 187. 
Indian hog, 15, 50. 
Infkramation of the lungs, 122. 
Intestines, the, 127. 

— — , worms in, 133 

Intractability of swine refuted, 35. 
Inversion of the bladder, 135. 
Ireland, pigs chief source of profit in, 

33. 
Irish pig, the, 89. 

, lately improved, 90. 

pork, 90. 

Iron hog, the, 15. 

Italy, swine employed in hunting for 

truffles in, 43. 
Jungles, hogs in the, 54. 



K. 



Killing pigs, 211. 



L. 



Lake, Colonel, his account of the ^igs 

in Guernsey, 73. 
Lancet, use of the, 14.5. 
Larynx, 116. 

Lawly, Sir F., his pigs, 83. 
Laws, English, on price and quality of 

swine, 31. 
Laws of Shetland relative to pigs, 73. 
Learned pigs, 38. 
Leicester pigs, 80. 
Leprosy, pigs subject to, 138. 
Leprous pigs, wholesomeness of flesh 

of, questioned, 140. 
Lice, pigs infested with, 137. 
Life of pigs in Germany, 32. 
Lincolnshire pigs, 79. 
Linnaeus on swine's v^egetable diet, 

43. 
Litters, how many to be suffered, 154. 
Liver, the, 130. 
Lungs of the swine, 122 ; inflammation 

of, 122. 



M 



Mad pigs, ] 09. 

Maimonides on prohibition of swine's 
flesh, 23. 

Maladies of swine. See " Diseases." 

, medicines used for, 

223. 

Malays, the, use the fat of the babi- 
roussa, 14. 

Mange, swine afflicted with, 141. 

Manure, pig's dung as, 222. 

Masting swine, 31. 

Matches run by pigs, 37, 38. 

Maw, garget of the, 130. 

Measles in pwine, 142. 

Medicines used for maladies of swine 
223. 

Mexican hog, 13, 62, 202. 

Mexico, how pigs are kept in, 202. 

Milk, swine fed on, 179. 

Mohammed's prohibition of swine'i 
flesh, 24. 

Moldavian pigs. 68. 

Moluccas, the ))abirouspa found in. 14 

Monstrosities farrowed by swine, 165. 

Morocco, wild boars in, 56. 

Moses gave laws respecting swir.e, 22. 

Muscles of the hog, 106. 



IxVDEX. 



22S 



N 



Nasal catarrh, 116. 

Norfolk pigs, 82. 
Ncrthampl ^n&hire pigs, 83. 
Nutritious food for s-«'ine, 191. 
Nuts not to be given to pigs, 184. 



0. 



Ogilvy, W., Esq., cut of a Chinese sow 
sent to, 88. 

Old English hog, cut of, 77. 

Operations on swine, 144. 

Os hjoides, the, 118. 

Oxford, boar's head at Queen's Col- 
lege, 51. 



P. 



Palsy, 111. 

Panther torn to pieces, by hogs, 62. 

Paraguay, the peccary abundant in, 13. 

Paralysis, 111. 

Paris menagerie, babiroussa at, 14. 

Parturition, 162. 

, cases of diflficult, 163. 

Pasturing swine, 187. 

Peas, feeding pigs on, 186. 

Peccary, the 13. 

Peritoneum, 133. 

Peritonitis, 133. 

Pet pig, a, 40. 

I'haco-choeres, the, 15. 

Pharynx, the, 118. 

Phrenitis, 109. 

Pickling pork, 212. 

Pig. See '' Hog." 

Pig doctors, rough practice of, 102, 103. 

Piggeries, proper construction of, 197. 

Piggery, Prince Albert's, at the Home 

Farm, 200. 
Pig-killing, 211. 
Pig) preparing the dead, 212. 
Pigs, roasted, offered to deities, 63, 64. 

, sucking, 206. 

' Pigs see the wind," 42. 
Pig-sties, proper construction of, 197. 
Pliny alludes to the babiroussa, 14. 
Pleuro- Pneumonia, 123. 
Ploughing, swine used for, 37. 
Poisonous properties of brine, 220. 
Polish pigs, 67. 
Porcuiatio, 22. 
Porous Trojauus. the, 22 



Pork, abstinence from, in hot climates, 
23 ; importation of, 220 ; increased 
demand for, 208 ; pickling, 212. 

Potatoes, staple food for pigs, 180, 181. 

Practitioners, well qiualitied, should 
be consulted, 102. 

Pregnancy, treatment of sows during, 
160. 

Price of swine, English laws respect- 
ing, 31. 

Prize pigs, 177 ; epitaph, on a, 178. 

Prussia, pigs in, 67. 

Pulsations in a state of health, 121. 

Pulse, how to be taken, 121. 

Pumpkins, swine fed on, 183. 



Quinsy, the, 118. 



Q. 



R. 



Rabies in swine. 112. 
Reasoning powers of pigs, 37, 38. 
I^ectum, protrusion of the, 135. 
Refuse of breweries and distilleries, 

hogs fed on, 179, 192. 
Residue of starch manufactories, food 

for swine, 180, 192. 
Rice, fattening swine with, 187. 
Ringing pigs, 148. 

Roasted pigs offered to deities, 63, 64, 
Rolling in the mud of pigs, explained, 

42. 
Romans, breeding swine a study among 

the, 22. 
Romans, the hog esteemed by, 22- 
Rome, slaughter-house at, 211. 
Hoots, feeding pigs on, 180. 
Ropes made from bristles, 74. 
Rotundity of the Chinese and their 

pigs, 64. 
Royal piggery at Windsor, 200. 
Rupture of the spleen, 132. 
Russia, wild boars in, 54. 



S. 



Sagacity of swine, 34, 39. 
Salted pork, importation of, 220 
Sausages, pork, made by ancient 

Gauls, 22. 
" Schwein-General, the, 32. 
Scotland, aboriginal breeds of swine 

in, 75. 



230 



INDEX. 



Sea-hog, the, 15. 

Sense of smell. /S'ce ** Smell." 

Sharon Turner on swine, 30. 

Shropshire pigs, 83. 

Skin, diseases of, 136. 

Skull of the pig, 104. 

Slut, training of a sow called, 35. 

Slaughter house at Rome, 211. 

Smell, exquisite, of the hog, 35, 42, 
45, 48, 105. 

Smoljehouse, for curing bacon, 216. 

Snout of the pig, 104. 

Snuffles, the, 116. 

Social pigs, 40. 

Soiling swine, 187. 

Sow, a Berkshire, 86 ; best time for 
farrowing, 160 ; choice of, for breed- 
ing, 150 ; devouring her young ac- 
counted for, 42 ; English on the 
quality and price of, 31 ; fertility o-f 
159 ; pregnancy of, 1 <vO ; rul"s re- 
specting farrowing, 160 , trained to 
hunt, 35. 

Spain, wild boars in, 54. 

Spaying of sows, 145, 146. 

Spinal cord, disease of, 109. 

Spleen, the, 131 ; absorption of, 131 ; 
rupture of, 131. 

Splenitis, 131. 

Sporting pig, 35. 

Starch manufactories, residue of, food 
for swine, 192. 

Stomach, the, 127. 

Strangles, 119. 

Sty, how to be constructed, 197. 

Sucking pigs, 206 ; how to be fed, 206 ; 
when to be killed, 207. 

Suckling, treatment of sows while, 
166 ; the young while, 166. 

Suffolk pigs, 81. 

Sumatra, the babiroussa found in, 14. 

Sus, varieties included under the name 
of, 11, 12. 

Sussex pigs, 87, 

Sweden, wild boars in, 54. 

Swine. See " Hog." 

Swineherds, outcasts from society, 29 ; 
three powerful, in Great Britain, 29 ; 
in Germany, 32. 

Swineherd, the, of Ulysses, 30. 



T. 



Talented pigs, 37, 38. 
Taming wild boars, 40, 57. 



Teachableness of swine, 35, 39, 40. 

Technical terms for the boar, 50. 

Teeth of the hog, 106. 

Tetanus, 112; a consequence of ca» 
tration, 146. 

Thorax, the, 120. 

Thornton, Col., account of a sow be* 
longing to, 36. 

Toby, a pet pig, account of, 40. 

Toouier, Messrs., a sow trained by, 35. 

Tractability of swine, 35, 39. 

Training swine, 35, 36, 38. 

Trollope, Mrs., on swine in America,60. 

Trough, the, how to be kept, 199 ; de- 
scription of, 199, 200. 

Truffles, hunted for by pigs, 45. 106. 

Turnips, not beneficial to pigs, 180, 
199. 

Twety, William, on hunting, 51. 



U. 



Ulysses and his swineherd, 30 ; boai^ 

bunt of, 49. 
Usefulness of swine, 34. 



V. 



Valves of the heart, diseased, 121. 
Varro on swine's flesh, 22 ; distinctive 

marks of a good boar, 151. 
Vegetable diet of swine, very select, 

43 ; feeding pigs on, 180. 
Ventilation required in piggeries, 108. 
Vesical calculi, 134. 
Veterinary surgeons should not be die* 

pensed with, 102. 

W. 

Wallachian pigs, 68. 

Warmth required by swine, 198. 

Wart-hog, the, 15. 

Wash, pigs fed on, 179. 

Washing swine, 202. 

Water-hog, the, 15. 

Weaning pigs, 1G8. 

Weather indicated by hogs, 42. 

Western, Lord, his Essex pig, 80. 

Westphalian hams, 52 5 how cured, 217} 

pigs, 68. 
Whey, hogs fed on, 179. 
Wild boar, cut of a, 46 ; hunting, 48 j 

49, 50 ; of Ardennes, 52 j pai'k 01 

Emperor of Austria, 53. 



INDEX. 



231 



Wild boar exempt from leprosy, 140 ; 
extinction of, in Great Britain, 48, 
87 ; the parent stock of our domes- 
ticated breeds, 46 ; prolific in Mo- 
rocco, 56 ; reintroduction into Eng- 
land, 48 : small number of litters, 
48 ; tamed, 40, 57 ; in America, 57; 
in France, 52 ; in Germany, 52, 53 ; 
in India, 54 ; in Morocco, 56 ; in 
Sweden, 54. 

Wilej, Mr. Samuel, his pigs, 78. 



William, IV., King, his Suffolk boar 

81. 
Wiltshire pigs, 84. 
Worms in the intestines, 133. 

Y. 

Yorkshire breed of swine, 78. 

Z. 

Zoological definition of the pig, \h 




p 




^^ 




